1
SECTION-1 (AUDITING)
INTRODUCTION TO AUDITING
STRUCTURE:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction -an overview of auditing
1.3 Origin and evolution
1.4 Definition
1.5 Salient features
1.6 Scope of auditing
1.7 Principles of auditing
1.8 Objects of audit
1.9 Detection and prevention of fraud 1.2
1.10 Concept of " true and fair view"
1.11 Advantages of audit
1.12. Limitations of audit
1.13. Let us sum up.
1.14. Keywords.
1.15. Bibliography
2
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to understand
a. the evolution of auditing
b. the objects of auditing
c. the advantages and disadvantages of auditing
d. detection and prevention of frauds and errors
e. limitations of auditing
1.2 INTRODUCTION -AN OVERVIEW OF AUDITING:
Economic decisions in every society must be based upon the
information available at the time the decision is made. For example, the
decision of a bank to make a loan to a business is based upon previous
financial relationships with that business, the financial condition of the
company as reflected by its financial statements and other factors.
If decisions are to be consistent with the intention of the decision
makers, the information used in the decision process must be reliable.
Unreliable information can cause inefficient use of resources to the
detriment of the society and to the decision makers themselves. In the
lending decision example, assume that the barfly makes the loan on the
basis of misleading financial statements and the borrower Company is
ultimately unable to repay. As a result the bank has lost both the principal
and the interest. In addition, another company that could have used the
funds effectively was deprived of the money.
As society become more complex, there is an increased likelihood
that unreliable information will be provided to decision makers. There are
several reasons for this: remoteness of information, voluminous data and
the existence of complex exchange transactions
3
As a means of overcoming the problem of unreliable information,
the decision-maker must develop a method of assuring him that the
information is sufficiently reliable for these decisions. In doing this he must
weigh the cost of obtaining more reliable information against the expected
benefits.
A common way to obtain such reliable information is to have some
type of verification (audit) performed by independent persons. The
audited information is then used in the decision making process on the
assumption that it is reasonably complete, accurate and unbiased.
1.3 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
The term audit is derived from the Latin term ‘audire,’ which
means to hear. In early days an auditor used to listen to the accounts
read over by an accountant in order to check them
Auditing is as old as accounting. It was in use in all ancient
countries such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt. Rome, U.K. and India.
The Vedas contain reference to accounts and auditing. Arthasashthra by
Kautilya detailed rules for accounting and auditing of public finances.
The original objective of auditing was to detect and prevent errors
and frauds
Auditing evolved and grew rapidly after the industrial revolution in
the 18th century With the growth of the joint stock companies the
ownership and management became separate. The shareholders who
were the owners needed a report from an independent expert on the
accounts of the company managed by the board of directors who were
the employees.
The objective of audit shifted and audit was expected to ascertain
whether the accounts were true and fair rather than detection of errors
and frauds.
4
In India the companies Act 1913 made audit of company accounts
compulsory
With the increase in the size of the companies and the volume of
transactions the main objective of audit shifted to ascertaining whether
the accounts were true and fair rather than true and correct. Hence the
emphasis was not on arithmetical accuracy but on a fair representation of
the financial efforts
The companies Act.1913 also prescribed for the first time the
qualification of auditors
The International Accounting Standards Committee and the
Accounting Standard board of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of
India have developed standard accounting and auditing practices to guide
the. accountants and auditors in the day to day work
The later developments in auditing pertain to the use of computers
in accounting and auditing.
In conclusion it can be said that auditing has come a long way
from hearing of accounts to taking the help of computers to examine
computerised accounts
1.4 DEFINITION
The term auditing has been defined by different authorities.
1. Spicer and Pegler: "Auditing is such an examination of books of
accounts and vouchers of business, as will enable the auditors to
satisfy himself that the balance sheet is properly drawn up, so as
to give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the business
and that the profit and loss account gives true and fair view of the
profit/loss for the financial period, according to the best of
information and explanation given to him and as shown by the
books; and if not, in what respect he is not satisfied."
5
2. Prof. L.R.Dicksee. "auditing is an examination of accounting
records undertaken with a view to establish whether they correctly
and completely reflect the transactions to which they relate.
3 The book "an introduction to Indian Government accounts and
audit" "issued by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India,
defines audit “an instrument of financial control. It acts as a
safeguard on behalf of the proprietor (whether an individual or
group of persons) against extravagance, carelessness or fraud on
the part of the proprietor's agents or servants in the realization and
utilisation of the money or other assets and it ensures on the
proprietor's behalf that the accounts maintained truly represent
facts and that the expenditure has been incurred with due
regularity and propriety. The agency employed for this purpose is
called an auditor."
1.5 FEATURES OF AUDITING
a. Audit is a systematic and scientific examination of the books of
accounts of a business;
b. Audit is undertaken by an independent person or body of persons
who are duly qualified for the job.
c Audit is a verification of the results shown by the profit and loss
account and the state of affairs as shown by the balance sheet.
d. Audit is a critical review of the system of accounting and internal
control.
e. Audit is done with the help of vouchers, documents, information and
explanations received from the authorities.
6
f. The auditor has to satisfy himself with the authenticity of the
financial statements and report that they exhibit a true and fair view
of the state of affairs of the concern.
g The auditor has to inspect, compare, check, review, scrutinize the
vouchers supporting the transactions and examine correspondence,
minute books of share holders, directors, Memorandum of
Association and Articles of association etc., in order to establish
correctness of the books of accounts.
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF AUDITING
There are two main objectives of auditing. The primary objective
and the secondary or incidental objective.
a. Primary objective – as per Section 227 of the Companies Act
1956, the primary duty (objective) of the auditor is to report to
the owners whether the balance sheet gives a true and fair view
of the Company’s state of affairs and the profit and loss A/c
gives a correct figure of profit of loss for the financial year.
b. Secondary objective – it is also called the incidental objective
as it is incidental to the satisfaction of the main objective. The
incidental objective of auditing are:
i. Detection and prevention of Frauds, and
ii. Detection and prevention of Errors.
Detection of material frauds and errors as an incidental objective of
independent financial auditing flows from the main objective of
determining whether or not the financial statements give a true and
fair view. As the Statement on auditing Practices issued by the
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India states, an auditor should
bear in mind the possibility of the existence of frauds or errors in the
accounts under audit since they may cause the financial position to
be mis-stated.
Fraud refers to intentional misrepresentation of financial information
with the intention to deceive. Frauds can take place in the form of
manipulation of accounts, misappropriation of cash and
misappropriation of goods. It is of great importance for the auditor
to detect any frauds, and prevent their recurrence. Errors refer to
unintentional mistake in the financial information arising on account
of ignorance of accounting principles i.e. principle errors, or error
arising out of negligence of accounting staff i.e. Clerical errors.
7
1.7 EXPRESSION OF OPINION
When we speak of the objective, we rationalize the thinking process
to formulate a set of attainable goals, with reference to the
circumstances, feasibility and constraints. In money matters, frauds
and errors are common place of occurrence. Apart from this, the
statements of account have their own purpose and use of
portraying the financial state of affairs. The objective of audit,
naturally, should be to see that what the statements of account
convey is true and not misleading and that such errors and frauds
do not exists as to distort what the accounts should really convey.
Till recently, the principal emphasis was on arithmetical accuracy;
adequate attention was not paid to appropriate application of
accounting principles and disclosure, for ensuring preparation of
accounting statement in such a way as to enable the reader of the
accounting statement to form a correct view of the slate of affairs.
Quite a few managements took advantage of the situation and
manipulated profit or loss and assets and liabilities to highlight or
conceal affairs according to their own design. This state of affairs
came up for consideration in the Royal Mail Steam Packet
Company’s Case as a result of which the Companies Acts of
England and India were amended in 1948 and 1956 respectively to
require the auditor to state inter alia whether the statements of
account are true and fair. This is what we can take as the present
day audit objective. The implication of the substitution of “true and
fair” need to be understood. There has been a shift of emphasis
from arithmetical accuracy to the question of reliability to the
financial statements. A statement may be reliable even though
there are some errors or even frauds, provided they are not so big
as to vitiate the picture. The word “correct” was somewhat
misplaced as the accounting largely consists of estimates.
However, you should not infer that the detection of errors and
frauds is no longer an audit objective; it is indeed an audit objective
because statements of account drawn up from books containing
serious mistakes and fraudulent entries cannot be considered as a
true and fair statement. To establish whether the financial
statement show a true and fair state of affairs, the auditors must
carry out a process of examination and verification and, if errors
and frauds exist they would come to his notice in the ordinary
course of checking. But detection of errors of frauds is not the
primary aim of audit; the primary aim is the establishment of a
degree of reliability of the annual statements of account.
If there remains a deep laid fraud in the accounts, which in the
normal course of examination of accounts may not come to light, it
will not be construed as failure of audit, provided the auditor was
not negligent in the carrying out his normal work. This principle was
established as early as in 1896 in the leading case in Re-Kingston
8
Cotton Mills Co.
1.8 DETECTION OF FRAUD & ERRORS
The term fraud means the willful misrepresentation made with an
intention of deceiving others. It is a deliberate mistake committed in the
accounts with a view to get personal gain. In accounting, fraud means two
things.
a. Defalcation involving misappropriation of either cash or goods; and
b. Fraudulent manipulation of accounts not involving defalcation.
1.8.1. FRAUD COVERS THE FOLLOWING
1.8.2 FRAUD THROUGH DEFALCATION.
Following are the methods of defalcation involving
misappropriation of cash or goods
1 By misappropriating the receipt by not recording the same in the
cashbook
2 By destroying the carbon copy or counter foil of the receipt and
misappropriating the cash received
3 By entering lesser amount on the counterfoil and misappropriating
the difference between money actually-received and the amount
entered on the counterfoil of the receipt book
9
4 By not recording the receipt of sale of a casual nature for example
sale of scrap, sale of old newspapers etc.
5 By omitting to record cash donations received by non-profit making
charitable institutions
6 By misappropriating the cash received on discounting the bills
receivable and showing them as bills outstanding on hand.
7 By misappropriating cash received from debtors and concealing the
same by giving artificial credit to the debtors in the form of bad debts,
discount or sales return etc.
8 By adopting the method of "teeming and lading" or "lapping process".
Under this method cash received from one debtor is misappropriated
and deficiency in that debtors account is made good when another
payment is received from second debtor by crediting the second
debtors account less by that amount. This process is carried out
round the year.
9 By suppressing the cash sales by not recording them or by treating
the cash sales as credit sales.
10 By misappropriating the sale proceeds of VPP sales or sales of
goods on approval basis by treating the transaction as goods
received or not approved.
11 By under casting receipt side total of the cashbook
12 By recording fictitious or bogus payments
13 By recording more payments than actual amounts paid by altering
the figures on the vouchers.
10
14 By showing the same payment twice.
15 By showing credit purchases as cash purchases and
misappropriating the amount
16 Recording personal expenses as business expenses
17 By not recording discounts and allowances given by the creditors and
misappropriating the amounts
18 By overcasting the payment side total of the cashbook
19 Recording fictitious and inflated purchases and misappropriating that
amount.
20 By suppressing the credit notes for returns and showing the full
payment to creditors.
21 By including the names of dummy workers or the workers who have?
The job in the wage sheets and misappropriating the amount.
22 By over casting the total of wages sheets and drawing that amount
for misappropriation.
23 By misappropriating the undisbursed wages.
11
1.8.3 FRAUD THROUGH MANIPULATION OF ACCOUNTS
It implies presentation of accounts more favorably than what they
actually are. Window dressing means showing a wrong picture. The fraud
through manipulation of accounts is also known as window dressing
because accounts are manipulated to show a wrong picture of the profit
or loss of the business and its financial state of affairs. Generally this type
of fraud is committed by the people at the top management level. This
does not involve any misappropriation of cash or goods but it is either
over statement of profit or understatement of the same. Such fraud is
committed with certain objective and is relatively difficult to detect.
1.8.4 THE AUDITOR CAN SUSPECT FRAUD UNDER THE
FOLLOWING CIRCUMSTANCES.
1. When vouchers, invoices, cheques, contracts are missing etc.
2. When control account does not agree with subsidiary books.
3. When the difference in trial balance is difficult to locate.
4. When there are greater fluctuation in G.P. and N.P. ratios.
5. When there is difference between the balance and the confirmation
of the balance by the parties.
6. When there is difference between the stock as per records and the
stock physically counted.
7. When the explanation given by the client is not satisfactory.
8. When there is a overwriting of some figures.
12
9. When there is a contradiction in the explanation given by different
parties.
1.8.5 PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED TO DETECT ERRORS.
Following procedures may be adopted by the auditor to detect the errors.
1. Check the opening balances from the balance sheet of the last year.
2. Check the posting into respective ledger accounts
3. Check the total of the subsidiary books.
4. Verify all the castings and the carry forwards.
5. Ensure that the list of debtors and creditors tally with the ledger
accounts.
6. Make sure that all accounts from the ledger are taken into accounts.
7. Verify the total of the trial balance.
8. Compare the various items from the trial balance with that of the
previous year.
9. Find out the amount of difference and see whether an item of half or
such amount is entered wrongly.
10. Check differences involving round figures as Rs. 1,000; Rs. 100 etc .
13
11. See where there is misplacement or transposition of figures that is 45
for 54; or 81 for 18 etc.
12. Ultimately careful scrutiny is the only remedy for detection of errors.
13. See that no entry of the original book has remained unposted.
1.8.6. THE AUDITOR SHOULD PERFORM THE FOLLOWING DUTIES
IN RESPECT OF FRAUD.
1. Examine all aspects of the finance.
2. Vouch all the receipts from the counterfoils or carbon copies or cash
memos, sales mart reports etc.
3. Check thoroughly the salary and wages register.
4. Verify the methods of valuation of stocks.
5. Check up stock register, goods inwards notes, goods out wards
books and delivery challans etc
6. Calculate various ratios in order to detect fraudulent manipulation of
accounts
7. Go through the details of unusual items.
8. Probe into the details of the problems when there is a suspicion.
9. Exercise reasonable skill and care while performing the duty.
10. Make surprise visit to check the accounts.
14
1.9 ADVANTAGES AND INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF
AUDIT
1.9.1 ADVANTAGES OF AUDIT
Advantages of audit
A. Businessman's point of view B. Investor's point of view C. Other Advantages.
1 Detecfonof errorsandfrauds 1 . Protects interest 1. Evaluate financial status
2 Loan from banks 2. Moral check 2. Usting of shares
3 Builds reputation 3. Proper valuation of
investments
3. Settlements of claims
4 Proper valuation of assets 4 Good security 4 Evidence in court
5. Government acceptance 5. Settlement of accounts
6. Update accounts 5. F aciStates calcu lation of
Purchase. Conskteraton.
7 Suggestions for
improvement
7 Facilitates taxation
8. Useful for agency
1.9.2 LIMITATIONS OF AUDITING
At this stage, it must be clear that the objective of an audit of
financial statements is to enable an auditor to express an opinion
on such financial statements. In fact, it is the auditor’s opinion which
helps determination of the true and fair view of the financial position
and operating results of an enterprise. It is very significant to note
that the AAS-2 makes it a subtle point that such an opinion
expresses by the auditor is neither an assurance as to the future
viability of the enterprise nor the efficiency or effectiveness with
which management has conducted affairs of the enterprise. Further,
the process of auditing is such that it suffers from certain inherent
limitations, i.e., the limitation which cannot be overcome
irrespective of the nature and extent of an audit procedure. It is very
important to understand these inherent limitations of an audit since
understanding of the same would only provide clarity as to the
15
overall objectives of an audit. The inherent limitations are:
I. First of all, auditor’s work involve exercise of judgment, for
example, in deciding the extent of audit procedures and in
assessing the reasonableness of the judgment and
estimates made by the management in preparing the
financial statements. Further much of the evidence available
to the auditor can enable him to draw only reasonable
conclusions there from. The audit evidence obtained by an
auditor is generally persuasive in nature rather than
conclusive in nature. Because of these factors, the auditor
can only express an opinion. Therefore, absolute certainty in
auditing is rarely attainable. There is also likelihood that
some material misstatements of the financial information
resulting from fraud or error, if either exists, may not be
detected.
II. The entire audit process is generally dependent upon the
existence of an effective system of internal control. Further, it
is clearly evident that there always be some risk of an
internal control system failing to operate as designed. No
doubt, internal control system also suffers from certain
inherent limitations. Any system of internal control may be
ineffective against fraud involving collusion among
employees or fraud committed by management. Certain
levels of management may be in a position to override
controls; for example, by directing subordinates to records
transactions incorrectly or to conceal them, or by
suppressing information relating to transactions. Such
inherent limitations of internal controls system also contribute
to inherent limitations of an audit.
Generally following are the Limitations of auditing
1. Non-detection of errors/frauds:- Auditor may not be able to detect
certain frauds which are committed with malafide intentions.
2. Dependence on explanation by others:- Auditor has to depend on
the explanation and information given by the responsible officers of
the company. Audit report is affected adversely if the explanation
and information prove to be false.
3. Dependence on opinions of others:- Auditor has to rely on the views
or opinions given by different experts viz Lawyers, Solicitors,
Engineers, Architects etc. he can not be an expert in all the fields
16
4. Conflict with others: - Auditor may have differences of opinion with
the accountants, management, engineers etc. In such a case
personal judgement plays an important role. It differs from person to
person.
5. Effect of inflation : - Financial statements may not disclose true
picture even after audit due to inflationary trends.
6. Corrupt practices to influence the auditors :- The management
may use corrupt practices to influence the auditors and get a
favourable report about the state of affairs of the organisation.
7. No assurance :- Auditor cannot give any assurance about future
profitability and prospects of the company.
8. Inherent limitations of the financial statements :- Financial
statements do not reflect current values of the assets and liabilities.
Many items are based on personal judgement of the owners. Certain
non-monetary facts can not be measured. Audited statements due to
these limitations can not exhibit true position.
9. Detailed checking not possible :- Auditor cannot check each and
every transaction. He may be required to do test checking.
17
1.10 MISCELLANEOUS
1.10.1 AUDITING Vs INVESTIGATION
Points of difference Auditing Investigation
1. objects
2 period
3 conducted
4 scope
5. compulsion
The object is to find
out whether balance
sheet and profit and
loss account exhibit a
true and fair view of
business.
It usually covers one
accounting year.
It is conducted for
proprietors only.
It is restricted to
balance sheet and
profit and toss
account.
Audit is legally
compulsory for
companies.
It may be conducted at
the end of the year.
It is undertaken to
know the essential
facts about a matter
under inquiry. It is done
with some special
purpose of view.
It may cover more than
one accounting year.
It is carried out on
behalf of any party
interested in the
matter.
It is wider in scope. It
may be carried out
beyond balance sheet.
It is voluntary. It is
required under certain
circumstances.
It may be conducted at
any time in case of
suspicion about any
transaction.
Form of report is not
18
6 time
7. report
8. appointment
9. qualifications
10. rework
Form of report is
prescribed. It is
presented to the
shareholders.
Owners appoint the
auditors.
The statutory auditors
must posses proper
qualifications.
Re - audit is not
generally undertaken.
prescribed. It is
presented to the client.
Even third party can
appoint an investigator.
Even an employee
preferably a chartered
accountant may be
appointed as
investigator.
Re - investigation may
be undertaken.
19
1.10.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING
Points of difference Accounting Auditing
1. meaning
2. nature
3. objects
4. commencement
5. scope
It is recording of all
the day to day
transactions in the
books of accounts
leading to preparation
of financial
statements.
It is concerned with
finalisation of
accounts.
The object is to
ascertain the trading
results.
Accounting
commences when
book keeping ends.
It involves various
financial statements. It
involves maintenance
of books of accounts.
It does not go beyond
books of accounts.
It is the critical
examination of the
transactions recorded
in the books of
accounts.
It is concerned with
establishment of
reliability of financial
statements.
The object is to certify
the correctness of
financial statements.
Auditing begins when
accounting
ends.
It depends upon the
agreement or upon the
provisions of law. It
goes beyond books of
accounts.
20
1.10.3 TRUE AND FAIR VIEW.
An audit of accounts by an independent expert assures the
outside users that the accounts are proper and reliable. The outsiders can
rely on the accounts if the auditor reports that the accounts are true and
fair. The accounts are said to be true and fair:
1. When the profit and loss shown in the profit and loss account is
true and fair, and
2. Also when the value of assets and liabilities shown in the
balance sheet is true and fair. What constitutes true and fair is not
defined under any law. However the following general guidelines may
be laid down in connection with true and fair.
a) Conform to accounting principles: The books of accounts
must be kept according to the normally accepted accounting
principles such as the concept of entity, continuity, periodical
matching of costs and revenue, accrual and double entry system
etc.
b) No window dressing or secret reserves: The accounts must
show the financial position and the profit or loss as they are. I.e.
there is neither an overstatement nor an understatement. There
should be in other words neither window dressing nor secret
reserves. In window dressing the accounts are made in such a
way as to show a much better condition than the actual
condition. The profit and the net worth are overstated
The accounts are said to show true and fair view when the
accounts show only the actual conditions as it is. i.e. the profit
and the net worth are shown as they are.
In order to show a true and fair view the auditor should ensure that:
1. The final accounts agree with the books of accounts.
2. The provision for depreciation is proper.
21
3. The closing stock is physically verified and valued properly.
4. Intangible assets like goodwill, patents, preliminary expenses or other
deferred revenue expenses are written off properly.
5. Proper provision is made for bad and doubtful debts.
6. Capital expenses is not treated as revenue expenses and vice versa.
7. Capital receipts are not treated as revenue receipts.
8. Effect of changes in rate of foreign exchange on value of assets and
liabilities is recorded in the books properly.
9. Contingent liabilities are not treated as actual liabilities and vice
versa.
10. Provision is made for all known losses and liabilities
11. A reserve is not shown as a provision and vice versa
12. Cut off transactions are recorded properly, so that all sales invoices
are matched with goods delivered and all purchase invoices are
matched with goods received.
13. Transactions are recorded on accrual basis, i.e. outstanding
expenses, prepaid expenses, income accrued and advance income
are recorded properly.
14. Expected or anticipated gains are not credited to the profit and loss
account.
15. Effect of events after the balance sheet date on the value of an asset
and liability is disclosed in the accounts properly
16. The exceptional or non-recurring transactions are disclosed
separately in the accounts.
22
3. Disclose all material facts: The books of accounts must disclose all
material facts regarding revenue, expenses, assets and liabilities. Material
means important and essential. The disclosure of important matters in the
accounts helps the users in taking business decisions. There should be
neither suppression of vital facts nor mis-statements.
4. Legal requirements: In case of limited company the account must
disclose the matters required to be disclosed under the Companies Act.
The final accounts must be in the format prescribed under Schedule VI of
the Companies Act, 1956. Special companies such as banks, insurance,
electricity supply companies prepare accounts as prescribed under
special laws. A co-operative society, a trust etc. must also prepare the
accounts as required under relevant laws.
5. Requirements of Institute of Chartered Accountants of India: The
accounts must also be in accordance with the various guidelines
prescribed by the ICAI. These guidelines are contained in the statements,
standard and guidance notes issued by the institute from time to time.
1.10.4 ADVANTAGES OF AN INDEPENDENT AUDIT
The fact that audit is compulsory by law, in certain cases by itself should
show that there must be some positive utility in it. The chief utility of audit
lies in reliable financial statement on the basis of which the state of affairs
may be easy to understand. Apart from this abvious utility, there are other
advantage of audit. Some or all of these are of considerable value even to
those enterprises and organization where audit is not compulsory, these
advantages are given below:
(a) It safeguards the financial interest of persons who are not associated
with the management of the entity, whether they are partners or
shareholders.
(b) It acts as a moral check on the employees from committing
defalcations or embezzlement.
(c) Audited statements of account are helpful in setting liability for taxes,
negotiating loans and for determining the purchase consideration for a
business.
(d) This are also use for settling trade disputes or higher wages or bonus
as well as claims in respect of damage suffered by property, by fire or
some other calamity.
23
(e) An audit can also help in the detection of wastage and losses to show
the different ways by which these might be checked, especially those that
occur due to the absence of inadequacy of internal checks or internal
control measures.
(f) Audit ascertains whether the necessary books of accounts and allied
records have been properly kept and helps the client in making good
deficiencies or inadequacies in this respects.
(g) As an appraisal function, audit reviews the existence and operations of
various controls in the organizations and reports weakness, inadequacy,
etc., in them.
(h) Audited accounts are of great help in the settlement of accounts at the
time of admission or death of partner.
(i) Government may require audited and certificated statement before it
gives assistance or issues a licence for a particular trade.
1.10.5 QUALITIES OF AN AUDITOR
So far we have discussed the question of formal qualifications of an
auditor. But it is not enough to realise what an auditor should be.
He is concerned with the reporting on financial matters of business
and other institutions. Financial matters inherently are to be set with
the problems of human fallibility; errors and frauds are frequent.
The qualities required, according to Dicksee, are tact, caution,
firmness, good temper, integrity, discretion, industry, judgment,
patience, clear headedness and reliability. In short, all those
personal qualities that goes to make a good businessman
contribute to the making of a good auditor. In addition, he must
have the shine of culture for attaining a great height. He must have
the highest degree of integrity backed by adequate independence.
In fact, AAS-1 mentions integrity, objectivity and independence as
one of the basic principles.
He must have a thorough knowledge of the general principles of
law which govern matters with which he is likely to be in intimate
contact. The Companies Act, 1956 and the Partnership Act, 1932
need special mention but mercantile law, specially the law relating
to contracts, is no less important.
Needless to say, where undertakings are governed by a special
statute, its knowledge will be imperative; in addition, a sound
knowledge of the law and practice of taxation is unavoidable.
24
He must pursue an intensive programme of theoretical education in
subjects like financial and management accounting, general
management, business and corporate laws, computers and
information systems, taxation, economics, etc. Both practical
training and theoretical education are equally necessary for the
development of professional competence of an auditor for
undertaking any kind of audit assignment.
The auditor should be equipped not only with a sufficient knowledge
of the way in which business generally is conducted but also with
an understanding of the special features peculiar to a particular
business whose accounts are under audit. AAS-8 on ‘Audit
Planning’ emphasises that an auditor should have adequate
knowledge of the client’s business. The auditor, who holds a
position of trust, must have the basic human qualities apart from the
technical requirement of professional training and education.
He is called upon constantly to critically review financial statements
and it is obviously useless for him to attempt that task unless his
own knowledge is that of an expert. An exhaustive knowledge of
accounting in all its branches is the sine qua non of the practice of
auditing. He must know thoroughly all accounting principles and
techniques.
Auditing is a profession calling for wide variety of knowledge to
which no one has yet set a limit; the most useful part of the
knowledge is probably that which cannot be learnt from books
because its acquisition depends on the alertness of the mind in
applying to ever varying circumstances, the fruits of his own
observation and reflection; only he who is endowed with common
sense in adequate measure can achieve it.
Lord Justice Lindley in the course of the judgment in the famous
London & General Bank case had succinctly summed up the overall
view of what an auditor should be as regards the personal qualities.
He said, “an auditor must be honest that is, he must not certify what
he does not believe to be true and must take reasonable care and
skill before he believes that what he certifies is true”.
25
1.13 LET US SUM UP
Auditing is a systematic and scientific examination of the books of
accounts and records of business to enable the auditor to satisfy himself
that the profit and loss account and the balance sheet are properly drawn
up so as to exhibit a true and fair view of the financial state of affairs of
the business and profit or loss for the financial period.
The term auditing has been distinguished from accounting and
investigation The main point of distinction is that accountancy is
concerned with the preparation of financial statements whereas auditing
is concerned with checking of these financial statements and reporting on
the financial position and result of operation of the organisation.
Investigation is undertaken for some special purpose i.e. to determine the
extent of fraud or to determine the purchase price of the organisation and
the like.
Objectives of audit are broadly classified into a) primary objective
and b) secondary objective. Primary objective of audit is to substantiate
the accuracy of the financial statements prepared by the accountant while
the secondary objective is to detect and prevent errors and frauds.
A number of advantages can be derived from getting the accounts
audited by a qualified auditor, such as early detection of errors and
frauds, reliability of accounts, statements of various types of claims,
securing loans from banks and other financial institutions, etc.
Audit is classified into various types, viz., audit under statute, audit of
accounts of private firm, audit of accounts of private individuals, audit of
trust accounts. An auditor can adopt any one of the modes to conduct his
audit of an organisation, viz. continuous audit or periodical audit or interim
audit.
Besides being a Chartered Accountant an auditor should possess
certain other qualities, such as knowledge of relevant laws, intelligence,
tactfulness, vigilance, honesty and integrity courage, impartiality,
broadmindedness, patience, perseverance, maintaining secrecy of his
client, commonsense etc.
26
1.14 KEYWORDS
Auditing: Auditing is a systematic and scientific examination of
the books of accounts and records of business to enable the auditor to
satisfy himself that the profit and loss account and the balance sheet are
properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true and fair view of the financial
state of affairs of the business and profit or loss for the financial period.
Continuous audit: An audit which involves a detailed and
exhaustive examination of the books of accounts at regular intervals
throughout the year along with the accounting work.
Errors: Mistakes committed innocently and unknowingly while
making entries in the books of accounts.
Frauds: Fictitious entries made in the books of accounts with
certain motives.
Interim audit: An audit which is conducted for a part of the
accounting period for some specific purpose.
Investigation: Examination of accounts for special purpose.
Qualified auditor: A person who is a Chartered Accountant within
the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Act,1949.
Statutory audit: An audit undertaken under any specific statute or
Act.
True and fair view: A phrase which means that the financial
statements must not contain anything which is untrue, unfair, unlawful,
immoral and unethical i.e. the financial statements must not contain
errors and fraud.
27
1.15 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Contemporary Auditing : Kamal Gupta, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, New
Delhi.
2. A Hand-Book of Practical Auditing: B.N. Tandon, S.Chand and
Company, New Delhi.
3. Fundamentals of Auditing : Kamal Gupta and Ashok Arora, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
1.16 QUESTIONS
1. Check your progress
i) Define auditing.
ii) Distinguish between accountancy and auditing.
iii) State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) Auditing of accounts is compulsory in a partnership firm.
b) Auditing of accounts is undertaken to detect fraud in the books
of accounts.
c) A professional auditor cannot take up the work of preparing the
accounts of a company.
d) Investigation is taken up only on behalf of the owner of the
entity.
e) Investigation of accounts is not compulsory but audited by the
qualified professional accountant.
f) In ancient period the audit was confined to cash audit and not
to locate fraud.
g) Audit of company accounts is compulsory under the Chartered
Accountants Act, 1949.
28
2. Check your progress
1. List the types of clerical errors.
2. Distinguish between errors and fraud.
3. What do you mean by window dressing.
4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word given in the bracket:
a) when two or more errors are committed in such a way that the
result of these errors on the debits and credits is nil, they are
known as ______(error of omission/compensating error)
b) ———————are always committed deliberately and
intentionally to defraud the proprietors of the organisation
(error/fraud)
c) the main objective of ———————is to avoid or reduce the
tax liability.(window dressing/secret reserves)
d) to determine and judge the reliability of the financial statements
and the supporting accounting records for a particular financial
period is—————of an audit .(primary objective/secondary
objective)
5 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The main object of auditing is to detect frauds from the books of
accounts.
b) The allocation of amount between capital and revenue
expenditure is a compensating error.
29
c) Audited accounts are free from errors and fraud.
d) The main purpose of auditing is to report on the efectiveness of
the internal check system of organisation.
e) Compensating errors do not affect the balance sheet of the
company as the trial balance does not disagree.
f) The auditor is appointed to report on the financial position of the
company carrying out an analytical examination of the books of
accounts related documents and internal and external
evidences.
g) An auditor who compromises on important matters of accounting
with the Board of Directors is known as dependent auditor.
30
2
INTRODUCTION TO AUDITING II
STRUCTURE:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Meaning And Definition Of Errors And Frauds
2.2 Reasons And Circumstances
2.3 Types Of Errors
2.4 Types Of Frauds
2.5 Risk Of Fraud And Error In Audit
2.6 Auditor’s Duties And Responsibilities In Respect Of Fraud
2.7 Basic Principles Of Audit
2.8 Audit Types
2.9 Accounting Concept Relevant To Auditing
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit the students will be able to
• Understand the meaning of Errors and Frauds
• Classify the reasons and circumstances of
errors and frauds.
• Explain the types of Errors and fraud
• Elaborate the Authors duty in case of Errors and frauds.
• Explain the types of Audit
• Understand the principles of Audit
2.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ERRORS AND
FRAUDS
DEFINITIONS :
Error refers to unintentional mis-statements or misdescriptions in the records or books of accounts by the books
keepers. In other words, they are unintentional mistakes arising on
account of negligence or ignorance. Errors may be basically of two
types :
(a) Principal Errors and (b) Clerical Errors
(a) principal Errors and : these errors arise generally when the
principals of accountancy are not observed while recording a
transaction. For instance a capital expenditure is recorded as
a revenue expenditure or vice versa. Such errors are difficult
to detect as the Trial Balance tallies inspite of such errors.
Basically it arises on account of ignorance of accounting
principles. Following are the examples of principles errors :
(1) Wages paid for installation of plant and machinery is
recorded as wages paid to workers
31
(2) Revenue receipt is recorded as a capital receipt
(3) Incorrect provisions for doubtful debts
(4) Incorrect provisions for discount on debtors
(5) Rent paid to landlord debited to the landlord account
instead of rent ac account
(6) Overvaluation or undervaluation of stock on account
of ignorance
(b) Clerical Errors – these errors arise on account of negligence of
the accounting staff. They are called technical errors clerical errors
may be further divided as errors of omission, Errors of Commission,
Duplicating Errors and Compensating Errors.
2.2 REASONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES
R.K. Mautz, has classifieds the reasons and circumstances of
errors and he has include fraud in the broad category of errors. The
classifications are the following.
1. ignorance on the part of employees of accounting
development, generally accepted accounting principles,
appropriate account classification of the necessary
reconciling subsidiary ledgers with controlling accounts and
of good accounting practices in general.
2. carelessness on the part of those doing the accounting work.
3. A desire to conceal the effect of defalcations of shortage of
one kind or another.
4. A tendency of the management to permit prejudice or bias to
influence the interpretation of transactions or events or their
presentation in the financial statements.
5. An ever presents desires to hold taxes on income to
minimum.
A sixth cause may be added to those Mr.Mautz has listed and that
is more serious in nature. It is the intentional effort committed by
persons in positions of authority to :
I. Show up the picture depicted by the statements;
II. Depress the picture depicted by the statements; and
III. Convert the error to a personal benefit.
32
2.3 TYPES OF ERRORS
2.3.1 Commission
It includes posting errors, casting errors and
totalling errors. For example ale to A has been recorded in B’s A/c,
it is a posting error or it is recorded in A’s A/c but the amount is
wrongly recorded. Similarly the balance of Rs.510 is carried forward
as Rs.501, and then it is a casting error. Certain errors will not
affect the trial balance for example posting in a wrong account will
not affect the trial balance but if there is a totalling error or a casting
error then the trial balance does not agree.
2.3.2 Omission
In the process of recording the accounting clerk may
omit a transaction from recording either fully or partially. If a
transaction is fully omitted, then it will be difficult to trace out, as
both the debit and the credit are missing and the trial balance will
tally inspite of these errors. However if a transaction is partly
omitted, then only one aspect of the transaction is recorded. In this
case it is easier to locate such an error.
2.3.3 Principle and compensating
PARTICULRS PRINCIPLE COMPENSATING
MEANING A Transaction Is Basically
Recorded In The Books In
An Incorrect Manner.
An error which is counter
balanced by another error, so that
it is not disclosed by the trial
balance.
Types. (a) errors which do not
affect profit: e.g.
manufacturing wages posted
to trade expenses A/C or
wrong classification of
assets or Liabilities.
(b) Error which affect
profit :
e.g. treating rent paid as a
debtor instead pf as
expenses, when capital
expenditure is treated as
revenue and debited to P&L
account.
It may or may not affect profit. If
both original and compensating
errors arise in revenue accounts,
profit will not be affected, but if
one arises in a revenue account
and other in an asset or liability
account, trial balance will agree,
but profit will be incorrectly stated.
It arises in various ways, most
frequently in casting, e.g., cast of
expenditure account may be
Rs.96,000 too much, profit and
asset being thereby shown
improperly.
3 Effect on trial
balance.
These errors will not affect
the trial balance.
These errors will not affect the trial
balance.
Effect on profit Error that involves income
and expenditure a/c e.g.
wrong distinction between
capital and revenue
Compensating errors, involving
income and affect profit. But if
error is in asset and liability
accounts only, profits may not be
33
2.4 TYPES OF FRAUDS
According to the standard Auditing practices issued by the
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, the term fraud refers to
intentional misrepresentation of finance information by one or more
individuals among management or third parties. In other words, it is
intentional or wilful misrepresentation r deliberate concealed of a
material fact with a view to deceive, cheat or mislead another
person.
Frauds may be of different types:
i) Manipulation of accounts,
ii) Misappropriation of cash,
iii) Misappropriation of Goods.
2.4.1 Manipulation of Accounts
Manipulation of accounts is said to be committed when a person
makes a false entry in the books of accounts knowing it to be
wrong, alters or destroys a true entry in the business records or
prevents the making of a true entry in the business records.
Normally it is done by people at the top management level. It is
done to overstate or understate the profits and the financial
conditions of the business so as to serve their purpose.
Manipulation may be done in any of the following ways :
1) Non provisions of depreciation on fixed assets
2) Overvaluation or undervaluation of assets
3) Recording revenue expenditure as capital expenditure
4) Showing expenses of the next year in the current year’s
profit and loss account
5) Not recording currents year’s accrued expenses etc.
A comm0on form of manipulation of accounts is known as “window
Dressing.”
expenditure will affect profit. affected.
Detection These errors are detected by
audit procedures like
analytical reviews, ledger
scrutiny, analysis of
comparative financial
statements, etc.
Such errors are generally
deliberately concealed and hence
difficult to detect. Audit procedures
like analytical review, posting
checking, ledger scrutiny, etc. can
partly help to locate these errors.
34
2.4.2 Misappropriation of Cash
Misappropriation of cash is also called embezzlement of cash. It
means fraudulent appropriation of cash belonging to another
person by one who has been entrusted to it. Misappropriation may
take place in the following ways:
1) Not recording full cash sales and pocketing a part of the
proceeds
2) Teeming and Lading
3) Misappropriation the money received from sale of goods sent
on sale or return basis
4) Making fictitious entries in customer’s accounts for bad debts,
discount etc.
5) Misappropriation the amount received from sale of defective
goods by not recording such sale
6) Recording fictitious cash purchase
7) Recording payments to fictitious creditors
8) Not recording discounts received from creditors
9) Recording payments to dummy or ghost workers and
pocketing the money, etc.
2.4.3 Misappropriation of Goods
It refers to fraudulent application of goods by those who handle
them. It can be done by recording sales of larger quantities and
misappropriating the balance or by recording purchase of large
quantities receiving less quantity and then receiving the balance
amount privately.
2.5 RISK OF FRAUD AND ERROR IN AUDIT
The following events may increase the risk of fraud or error -
1. Internal Control Faults: Weaknesses in the design of internal
control system and non-compliance with laid down control
procedures, e.g. a single person being responsible for receipt of all
pasts/ mails and marking it ti the relevant secions or two persons
responsible for receipt of all posts/ mails but the same is not
followed in the practice.
2. Doubts about the integrity or competence of the management,
e.g. domination by one person, high rate of employee turnover,
frequent change of legal counselsof Auditors, significant and
prolonged understaffing of the accounts department, etc.
3. Unusual pressures within the entity, e.g. industry is doing well
but the Company's performance is poor, heavy dependence on a
single line of product, inadequate working capital, need to show
more profit to support the share market price, etc.
4. Unusual transactions e.g. transactions with related parties,
excessive payment for certain services to lawyers, etc.
35
5. Problems in obtaining sufficient and appropriate audit
evidence,
E.g. inadequate documentation significant differences
between the figures as per accounting records and confirmation
received from third parties. Etc.
2.6 AUDITOR’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN
RESPECT OF FRAUD
The primary objective of an auditor is to express an opinion
on the financial statements. However, the auditor while conducting
the audit is required to consider the risk of material misstatements
in the financial statements resulting from fraud or error.
An audit conducted in accordance with the auditing standards
generally accepted in India is designed to provide reasonable
assurance that the financial statements taken as a whole are free
from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. The
fact that an audit is carried out may act as a deterrent, but the
auditor is not and cannot be held responsible for the prevention of
fraud and error.
The auditor’s opinion on the financial statements is based on the
concept of obtaining reasonable assurance; hence, in an audit, the
auditor does not guarantee that material misstatements, whether
from fraud or error, will be detected. Therefore, the subsequent
discovery of a material misstatement pf the financial statement
resulting from fraud or error does not, in and of itself, indicates:
a) Failure to obtain reasonable assurance,
b) Inadequate planning, performance or judgment,
c) Absence of professional competence and due care, or,
d) Failure to comply with auditing standards generally accepted in
India.
This is particularly the case for certain kinds of intentional
misstatements, since auditing procedures may be ineffective for
detecting an intentional misstatement that is concealed through
collusion between or among one or more individuals among
management. Those charged with governance, employees, or third
parties, or involves falsified documentation. Whether the auditor
has performed an audit in accordance with auditing standards
generally accepted in India is determined by the adequacy of the
audit procedures performed in the circumstances and the suitability
of the auditor’s reports based on the result of these procedures.
In planning and performing his examination the auditor should take
into consideration the risk of material misstatements of the financial
information caused by fraud or error. He should inquire with the
management as to any fraud or significant error. Which has
occurred in the reporting period, and modify his audit procedures, if
36
necessary. If circumstances indicate the possible existence of fraud
and error, the auditor should consider the potential effect of the
suspected fraud and error on the financial information. If he is
unable to obtain evidence to confirm, he should consider the
relevant laws and regulations before expressing his opinion.
The auditor also has the responsibility to communicate the
misstatement to the appropriate level of management on a timely
basis and consider the need to report to it then changed with
governance. He may also obtain legal advice before reporting on
the financial information or before withdrawing from the
engagement. The auditor should satisfy himself that the effect of
fraud is properly reflected in the financial information or the error is
corrected in case the modified procedures performed by the auditor
confirm the existence of the fraud.
The auditor should also consider the implications of the frauds and
errors, and frame his report appropriately. In case of a significant
fraud, the same should be disclosed in the financial statement. If
adequate is not made, there should be a suitable disclosure in his
audit report.
2.7 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AUDIT
AAS-1 describes the basic principles, which govern the auditor's
professional responsibilities and which should be complied with
whenever an audit is carried out. These are:-
1. Integrity, objectivity and independence:
The auditor should be straightforward, honest and sincere in his
approach to his professional work. He must be fair and must not
allow prejudice or bias to override his objectivity. He should
maintain an impartial attitude and appear to be free of any interest
which might be regarded. Whatever it's actual effect, as being
incompatible with integrity and objectivity.
2. Confidentiality:
The auditor should respect the confidentiality of information
acquired in the course of his work and should not disclose any such
information to a third party without specific authority or unless there
is legal or professional duty to disclose. It is remarked that an
auditor should keep his ears and eyes open but his mouth shut.
3. Skill and competence:
The audit should be performed and the report prepared with due
professional care by persons who have adequate training,
experience and competence. This can be acquired through a
combination of general education, technical knowledge obtained
through study and formal courses concluded by a qualifying
37
examination recognized for this purpose and practical experience
under proper supervision.
4. Work performed by others:
When the auditor delegates work to assistant* or uses work
performed by other auditors or experts, he will continue to be
responsible for forming and expressing his opinion on the financial
information. At the same time he is entitled to rely on work
performed by others provided he exercises adequate skills and care
and is not aware of any reason to believe that he should not have
relied. The auditor should carefully direct, supervise & review work
delegated by assistants. He should obtain reasonable assurance
that work performed by other auditors or experts is adequate for
this purpose.
5. Documentation:
The auditor should document matters, which are important in
providing evidence that the audit was carried out in accordance with
the basic principles.
6. Planning:
The auditor should plan his work to enable him to conduct an
effective audit in an efficient and timely manner. Plans should be
based on knowledge of client's business. They should be further
developed and revised, if required, during the course of audit.
7. Audit evidence:
The auditor should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
through the performance of compliance and substantive test
procedure. It will enable him to draw reasonable conclusions there
from on which he has to base his opinion on the financial
information.
8. Accounting system & internal control:
The auditor should gain an understanding of the accounting system
and related internal controls. He should study and evaluate the
operation of those internal controls upon which he wishes to rely in
determining the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures.
9. Audit conclusions and reporting:
The auditor should review and assess the conclusions drawn from
the audit evidence obtained and from his knowledge of business of
the entity as the basis for the expression of his opinion on the
financial information.
38
The audit report should contain a written expression of opinion of
the financial information. It should comply with the legal
requirements. In case of a qualified opinion, adverse opinion or
disclaimer of opinion is given or reservation on any matter is to be
made reasons thereof.
2.8 AUDIT TYPES
MEANING:
Audit is not legally obligatory for all types of business
organizations or institutions. On this basis audits may be of two
broad categories i.e., audit required under law and voluntary audits.
(i) Audit required under law : The organizations which require audit
under law are the following:
(a) companies governed by the Companies Act, 1956;
(b) banking companies governed by the Banking Regulation Act,
1949;
(c) electricity supply companies governed by the Electricity supply
Act, 1948;
(d) co-operative societies registered under the co-operative
Societies Act, 1912;
(e) public and charitable trusts registered under various Religious
and Endowment Acts;
(f) corporations set up under an Act of parliament or State
Legislature such as the Life Insurance Corporation of India.
(g) Specified entities under various sections of the Income-tax
Act, 1961.
(ii) In the voluntary category are the audits of the accounts of
proprietary entities, partnership firms, Hindu undivided families, etc.
in respect of such accounts, there is no basic legal requirement of
audit. Many of such enterprises as a matter of internal rules require
audit. Some may be required to get their accounts audited on the
directives of Government for various purpose like sanction of
grants, loans, etc. But the important motive for getting accounts
audited lies in the advantages that follow from an independent
professional audit. This is perhaps the reason why large numbers of
proprietary and partnership business get their accounts audited.
Government companies have some special feature which will be
seen later.
INTERIM AUDIT:
An audit that is taken up between two annual audits is called an
Interim Audit. A specific date, as per the client’s requirement is
taken into account, e.g. 30th September, 31st December, etc. a trial
balance is drawn and verified with a view to prepare financial
statement. Financial statement are prepared and authenticated for
the interim audit period. Assets and liabilities are verified for interim
39
balance sheet purposes. Independence is considered less
independent than the statutory Auditor; generally an employee of
the enterprise will be the internal auditor. In the interim audit no
format is prescribed. It depends on the nature of work, coverage
and audit observations.
CONTINUOUS AUDIT:
A continuous audit is one in which the auditor’s staff is engaged
continuously in checking the accounts of the client, during the
whole year round or when for the purpose, the staff attends at quite
frequent intervals say weekly basis during the financial period.
A continuous audit is preferred for the following reasons:
i. It makes it possible for the management to exercise a stricter
control over the accounts in as much as one is able to check
sooner the causes of any errors of frauds uncovered by such
an audit.
ii. The frequent attendance by the staff deters persons so
inclined, from committing a fraud.
iii. The accounting staff of the client is motivated to keep the books
of account up-to-day.
2.9 ACCOUNTING CONCEPT RELEVANT TO
AUDITING
INTRODUCTION
1. The purpose of this standard is to establish standards on the
concept of materiality and its relationship with audit risk.
2. The auditor should consider materiality and its relationship with
audit risk when conducting an audit.
2.9.1MATERIALITY:
1. Information is material if its misstatement (i.e., omission or
erroneous Statement) could influence the economic decisions
of users taken on the Basis of the financial information.
Materiality depends on the size and Nature of the item, judged
in the particular circumstances of its misstatement. Thus,
materiality provides a threshold or cut-off point rather than
being a primary qualitative characteristic which the information
must have if it is to be useful.
2. The objective of an audit of financial information prepared
within a framework of recognized accounting policies and
practices and relevant statutory requirements, if any, is to
enable the auditor to express an opinion on such financial
information. The assessment of what is materiality of
professional judgment.
3. The concept of materiality recognizes that some matters, either
individually or in the aggregate, are relatively important for true
and fair presentation of financial information in conformity at
40
both the overall financial information level and in relation to
individual account balances and classes of transactions.
Materiality may also be influenced by other considerations,
such as the legal and regulatory requirements, non-compliance
with which may have a significant bearing on the financial
information, and consideration relating to individual account
balances and relationships. This process may result in different
levels of materiality depending on the matter being audited.
4. Although the auditor ordinary establishes an acceptable
materiality level to detect quantitatively material misstatements,
both the amount (quantity) and nature (quality) of
misstatements need to be considered. An example of a
qualitative misstatement would be the inadequate or improper
description of an accounting policy when it is likely that a user
of the financial statements would be misted by the description.
5. The auditor needs to consider the possibility of misstatements
of relatively small amounts that, cumulatively, could have a
material effect on the financial information. For example, an
error in a month-end (or other periodic) procedures could be an
indication of a potential material misstatement if that error is
repeated each month or each period, as the case may be.
6. Materiality should be considered by the auditor when-
(a) Determining the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures;
(b) Evaluating the effect of misstatements.
2.9.2GOING CONCERN:
1. The purpose of this Auditing and Assurance standard (AAS) is
to establish standards on the auditor’s responsibilities in the
audit of financial statements regarding the appropriateness of
the going concern assumption as a basis for the financial
statements.
2. When planning and performing audit procedures and in
evaluating the results thereof, the auditor should consider the
appropriateness of the going concern assumption underlying the
preparation of the financial statements.
3. The auditor’s report helps establish the credibility of the financial
statements. However, the auditor’s report is not a guarantee as
to the future viability of the entity.
4. An entity’s continuous as a going concern for the foreseeable
future, generally a period not to exceed one year after the
balance sheet date, is assumed in the preparation of financial
statements in the absence of information to the contrary.
Accordingly, asset and liabilities are recorded on the normal
course of business. If this assumption is unjustified, the entity
41
may not be able to realize its assets at the recorded amounts
and there may be changes in the amounts and maturity dates of
liabilities. As a consequence, the amounts and classification of
assets and liabilities in the financial statement may need to be
adjusted.
APPROPRIATENESS OF THE GOING CONCERN ASSUMPTION
I. The auditor should consider the risk that the going concern
assumption may no longer be appropriate.
II. Indications of risk that continuance as a going concern may be
questionable could come from the financial statements or from
other sources. Examples of such indications that would be
considered by the auditor are listed below. This listing is not
all-inclusive nor does the existence of one or more always
signify that the going concern assumption needs to be
questioned.
42
3
AUDIT PLANNING
STRUCTURE:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Meaning:
3.2 Objectives Of Planning
3.3 Factors To Be Considered
3.4 Sources Of Obtaining Information
3.5 Development Of An Overall Plan
3.6 Meaning Of Audit Programme
3.7 Factors Advantages And Disadvantages Of Audit Programme
3.8 Audit Working papers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit the students will be able to
• Define Audit Planning
• Understand the Objectives of Audit Planning
• Understand the Meaning of Audit Programme
• Explain the factors, advantages and disadvantages of Audit
Programme
• Know the meaning of Audit Papers.
3.1 MEANING
As per Auditing and Assurance Standard 1, “Basic Principles
Governing an Audit”, Audit Planning is one of the basic principles.
Accordingly, it states
“The auditor should plan his work to enable him to conduct an
effective audit in an efficient and timely manner. Plans should be
based on knowledge of the client’s business. Plans should be
made to cover, among other things:
(a) Acquiring knowledge of the client’s accounting systems,
policies and internal control procedures;
(b) Establishing the expected degree of reliance to be placed on
internal control;
(c) Determining and programming the nature, timing, and extent of
the audit procedures to be performed; and
43
(d) Coordinating the work to be performed.
Plans should be further developed and revised as necessary during
the course of the audit.”
AAS-8 further expounds this principle. According to it, planning
should be continuous throughout the engagement and involves
• Developing an overall plan for the expected scope and conduct
of the audit; and
• Developing an audit programme showing the nature, timing
and extent of audit procedures.
Changes in conditions or unexpected results of audit procedures
may cause revisions of the overall plan of and the audit
programme. The reasons for significant changes may be
documented.
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING
Adequate audit planning helps to:
• Ensure that appropriate attention is devoted to important
areas of the audit.
• Ensure that potential problems are promptly identified;
• Ensure that the work is completed expeditiously;
• Utilize the assistants properly; and
• Co-ordinate the work done by other auditors and experts.
In planning his audit, the auditor will consider factors such as
complexity of the audit, the environment in which the entity
operates his previous experience with the client and knowledge of
the client’s business.
The auditor may wish to discuss elements of his overall plan and
certain audit procedures with the client to improve the efficiency of
the audit and to coordinate audit procedures with work of the
client’s personnel. The overall audit plan and the audit programme,
however, remain the auditor’s responsibility.
3.3 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
Planning his audit, the Auditor will consider the following factors -
Complexity of the Audit: The scope of work and reporting
responsibilities is analyses in order to determine the complexity of audit.
Environment in which the entity operates: This enables the Auditor to
understand various operational aspects of audit, e.g. extent of computerization,
nature of internal controls, general attitude of personnel, etc.
Previous experience with the client: By analysing the previous year's
audit working papers and other relevant files, the Auditor should pay
44
particular attention to matters that required special consideration and decide
whether they might affect the work to be done in the current year.
Knowledge of the client's business: This is required to establish the overall
audit plan. The Auditor will be able to - (a) identify areas of special audit
consideration, (b) evaluate the reasonableness both of accounting estimates
and management representations, and (c),make judgments regarding the
appropriateness of accounting policies and disclosures.
Discussion with Client: The Auditor can discuss his overall plan and
certain audit procedures with the client to improve the efficiency of the audit
and to coordinate audit procedures with work of the client's personnel. The
overall audit plan and the audit Programme, however, remain the Auditor's
responsibility.
3.4 SOURCES OF OBTAINING INFORMATION
Sources of information listed under AAS - 8: The Auditor should
obtain a level of knowledge of the client's ;
ness that will enable him
to identify the events, transactions and practices that, in his judgment,
may have iificant effect on the financial information. The Auditor can
gain knowledge of client's "business from –
The client's Annual Reports to Shareholders.
Minutes of Meetings of Shareholders, Board of Directors and important
Committees.
'ntemal Financial Management Reports for current and previous periods,
including Budgets, if any.
Previous year's Audit Working Papers, and other relevant files. ,
p
rim Personnel responsible for non-audit services to the client who may be
able to provide information on
natters that may affect the audit.i '
Discussions with Client.
Client's Policy and Procedures Manual.
Relevant publications of the ICAI and other professional bodies, Industry
Publications, Trade Journals,
Magazines, Newspapers or Textbooks.
Consideration of the state of the economy and its effect on the client's
business.
45
Visits to the client's premises and plant facilities.
Discussion with client:
ording to AAS - 8, during the course of planning the audit, discussions with
the client might include the wing subjects -
Changes in Management, Organisational Structure, and activities of the client.
Current Government Legislation, Rules, Regulations and Directives affecting the
client.
Current Business Developments affecting the client.
Current or impending Financial Difficulties or Accounting Problems.
Existence of Interested Parties and transactions with them.
3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF AN OVERALL PLAN
The auditor should consider the following matters in developing his
overall plan for the expected scope and conduct of the audit:
• The terms of his engagement and any statutory responsibilities.
• The nature and timing of reports or other communication.
• The applicable legal or statutory requirements.
• The accounting policies adopted by the client and changes in
those policies.
• The effect of new accounting or auditing pronouncements on
the audit.
• The identification of significant audit areas.
• The setting of materiality levels for audit purposes.
• Conditions requiring special attention, such as the possibility of
material error or fraud or the involvement of parties in whom
directors or persons who are substantial owners of the entity are
the act of examining vouchers is referred to as vouching. It is
the practice followed in an audit, with the objective of
establishing the authenticity of the transactions recorded in the
primary books of account. It essentially consists of verifying a
transaction recorded in the books of account with the relevant
documentary evidence and the authority on the basis of which
the entry has been made; also confirming that the amount
mentioned in the voucher has been posted to an appropriate
account which would disclose the nature of the transaction on
its inclusion in the final statements of account. On these
considerations, the essential points to be borne in mind while
examining a voucher are:
46
(i) That the date of the voucher falls within the accounting period;
(ii) That the voucher is made out in the client’s name;
(iii) That the voucher is duly authorized;
(iv) that the voucher comprised all the relevant documents which
could be expected to have been received or brought into
existence on the transactions having been entered into, i.e., the
voucher is complete in all respects; and
(v) That the account in which the amount of the voucher is
adjusted is the one that would clearly disclose the character of
the receipts or payments posted thereto on its inclusion in the
final accounts.
After the examination is over, each voucher should be either
impressed with a rubber stamp or initialed so that it may not be
presented again in support of another entry.
3.6 MEANING OF AUDIT PROGRAMME
MEANING:
It is desirable that in respect of each audit and more particularly for bigger
audits an audit programme should be drawn up. Audit programme is
nothing but a list of examination and verification steps to be applied set
out in such a way that the inter-relationship of one step to another is
clearly shown and designed, keeping in view the assertions discernible in
the statement of account produced for audit or on the basis of an
appraisal of the accounting records of the client. In other words, an audit
programme is a detailed of the accounting records of applying the audit
procedures in the given circumstances with instructions for the
appropriate techniques to be adopted for accomplishing the audit
objectives. Businesses vary in nature, size and composition; work which
is suitable to one business may not be suitable to be rendered by the
auditor are the other factors that vary from assignment to assignment.
Because of such variations, evolving one audit programme applicable to
all business under all circumstances is not practicable. However it
becomes a necessity to specify in details in the audit programme the
nature of work to be done so that no time will be wasted on matters not
pertinent to the engagement and any special matter or any specific
situation can be taken care of.
An audit programme consists of a series of verification procedures to be
applied to the financial statements and accounts of a given company for
the purpose of obtaining sufficient evidence to enable the auditor to
47
express an informed opinion on such statements. For the purpose of
programme construction, the following points should be kept in view:
1. stay within the scope and limitation of the assignment.
2. determining the evidence reasonable available and identify the best
evidence for deriving the necessary satisfaction.
3. Apply only these steps and procedures which are useful in
accomplishing the verification purpose In the specific situation.
4. consider all possibilities of error.
5. co-ordinate the procedures to be applied to related items.
Amplification is not necessary of the above points except the one under
evidence: that is the very basis for formulation of opinion and an audit
programme is designed to provide for that by prescribing procedures and
techniques. What is best evidence for testing the accuracy of any
assertion is a matter of experts knowledge and evidence. This is the
primary taks before the auditor when he draws up the audit programme.
Transactions are varied in nature and impact; procedures to be
prescribed depend on prior knowledge of what evidence is reasonable
available in respect of each transaction
3.7 FACTORS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF AUDIT PROGRAMME
3.7.1 FACTORS
While construction an audit programme, the Auditor should keep
the following points in his mind1. to operate within the scope and limitations of the assignment.
2. to determine the avidence reasonably available and identify the best
avidence for deriving the necessary satisfaction.
3. to apply only those steps and procedures, which are useful in
accomplishing the verification purpose in the specific situation.
4. to consider all possibilities of error.
5. to co-ordinate the procedures to be applied to related items.
48
3.7.2 ADVANTAGES OF AUDIT PROGRAMME
a. It provides the assistant carrying out the audit with total and clear set
of instructions of the work generally to be done.
b. It is essential, particularly for major audits, to provide a total
perspective of the work to be performed.
c. Selection of assistants for the jobs on the basis of compatibility
becomes easier when the work is rationally planned, defined and
segregated.
d. Without a written and pre-determined programme, work is necessarily
to be carried out on the basis of some ‘mental’ plan. In such a
situation there is always a danger of ignoring or overlooking certain
books and records. Under a properly framed programme, the danger
is significantly less and the audit can proceed systematically.
e. The assistance, by putting their signature on programme, accepts the
responsibility for the work carried out by them individually and, if
necessary, the work done may be traced back to the assistant.
f. The principal can control the progress of the various audits in hand by
examination of audit programmes initiated by the assistants deputed
to the jobs for completed work.
g. It serves as a guide for audits to be carried out in the succeeding
year.
h. A properly drawn up audit programme serves as evidence in the
event of any charge of negligence being brought against the auditor. It
may be of considerable value in establishing that he exercised
reasonable skill and care that was expected of professional auditor.
3.7.3 DISADVANTAGES OF AUDIT PROGRAMME
a. The work may become mechanical and particular parts of the
programme may be carried out without any understanding of the object of
such parts in the whole audit scheme.
b. The programme often tends to becomes rigid and inflexible following
set grooves; the business may change in its operation of conduct, but the
old programme may still be carried on. Changes in staff or internal control
may render precaution necessary at points different from those originally
decided upon.
c. Inefficient assistants may take shelter behind the programme i.e.,
defend deficiencies in their work on the ground that no instructions in the
matter is contained therein.
49
d. A hard and fast audit programme may kill the initiative of efficient and
enterprising assistants.
All these disadvantages may be eliminated by imaginative supervision of
the work carried on by the assistants; the auditor must have a receptive
attitude as regards the assistants; the assistants should be encouraged to
observed matters objectively and bring significant matters to the notice of
supervisor/principal.
3.8 AUDIT WORKING PAPERS
3.8.1 MEANING:
The audit working papers constitute the link between the auditor’s report
and the client’s records. Documentation is one of the basic principles
listed in AAS 1. according to AAS 3 (reproduced in Appendix l),
documentation refers to working papers prepared or obtained by the
auditor and retained by him in connections with performance of his audit.
The objects of an auditor’s working papers are to record and demonstrate
the audit work from one year to another. Therefore, working papers
should provide for:
a) Means of controlling current audit work;
b) Evidence of audit work performed;
c) Schedules supporting or additional item in the accounts; and
d) Information about the business being audited, including the recent
history.
Working papers are varied in nature but the foundation of all working
paper can be traced to:
1. the basic constitutional document like memorandum and Articles of
association, partnership Deed, trust deed, etc.;
2. the contents of the minute books;
3. the contents of the balance sheet and the profit and loss account; and
4. the letter of engagement.
3.8.2 IMPORTANCE OF AUDIT WORKING PAPERS:
I. IT provides guidance to the audit staff regard to the manner of
checking the schedules.
II. The auditor is able to fix responsibility on the staff member who signs
each schedule checked by him.
50
III. It acts as an evidence in the court in the court of law when a charge
of negligence is brought against the auditor.
IV. It acts as the process of planning for the auditor so that he can
estimate the time that may be required for checking the schedules.
The auditor should adopt reasonable procedures for custody and
confidentiality of his working papers and should retained them for a
period of time sufficient to meet the needs of his practice and satisfy any
pertinent legal or professional requirements of record retention.
3.8.3 FACTOR DETERMINING FORM AND CONTENTS OF AUDIT
WORKING PAPERS:
Working papers should record the audit plan, nature, timing and extent of
auditing procedures performed, and the conclusions drawn from the
evidence obtained. The form and content of working papers are affected
by matters such as:
Nature of the engagement.
Form of the auditor’s report.
Nature and complexity of the client’s business.
Nature and condition of the client’s records and degree of reliance on
internal controls.
Need in particular circumstances for direction, supervision and review of
work performed by assistants.
Working papers should be designed and properly organized to meet the
circumstances of each audit and the auditor’s needs in respect thereof.
The standardization of working papers ( for example, checklists,
specimen letters, standard organisation of working papers) improves the
efficiency with which they are prepared and reviewed. It also facilitates
the delegation of work while providing a means to control its quality.
Working papers should be sufficiently complete and detailed for an
auditor to obtain an overall understanding of the audit. The extent of the
documentation is a matter of professional judgement since it is neither
necessary nor practical that every observation, consideration,
consideration or conclusion is documented by the auditor in his working
papers.
51
3.8.4 A Permanent Audit File
A permanent audit file normally includes
♦ Information concerning the legal and organizational structure of the
entity. In case of a company, this includes the memorandum and
Article of association. In the case of a statutory corporation, this
includes the act and regulations under which the corporation
functions.
♦ Extracts or copies of important legal documents, agreements and
minute relevant to the audit.
♦ A record of the study and the evaluation of the internal controls
related to the accounting system. This might be in the form of
narrative descriptions, questionnaires or flow charts, or some
combination thereof.
♦ Copies of audited financial statements for previous years.
♦ Analysis of significant ratios and trends.
♦ Copies of management letters issued by the auditor, if any.
♦ Record of communication with the retiring auditor, if any, before
acceptance of the appointment as auditor.
♦ Notes regarding significant accounting policies.
♦ Significant audit observations of earlier years.
3.8.5 The Current File
The current file normally includes
♦ Correspondence relating to acceptance of annual reappointment.
♦ Extracts of important matters in the minutes of board meetings and
general meetings as relevant to audit.
♦ Evidence of the planning of the audit and audit programme.
♦ Analysis of transactions and balances.
♦ A record of the nature, timing and extent of auditing procedures
performed, and the results of such procedures.
♦ Evidence that the work performed by assistants was supervised and
reviewed.
♦ Copies of communication with other auditors, experts and other third
parties.
♦ Letters of representation or confirmation received from the client.
♦ Conclusions reached by the auditor concerning significant aspects of
the audit, including the manner in which exceptions and unusual
matters, if any, disclosed by the auditor’s procedures were resolved or
treated.
♦ Copies of the financial information being reported on the related audit
reports.
52
3.8.6 MAIN FUNCTIONS/ IMPORTANCE
i. It provides guidance to the audit staff with regards to the manner of
checking the schedules.
ii. The auditor is able to fix responsibility on the staff member who sign
each schedule checked by him.
iii. It acts as an evidence in the court of law when a charge of
negligence is brought against the auditor.
iv. It acts as the process of planning for the auditor so that he can
estimate the time that may be required for checking the schedules.
The auditor should adopt reasonable procedures for custody and
confidentiality of his working papers and should retain them for a period
of time sufficient to meet the needs of his practice and satisfy any
pertinent legal or professional requirement of record retention.
Clarification On The Auditor’s Rights Where Clients And Other Auditors
Seek Access To Their Audit Working Papers.
1. Auditing and Assurance standard (AAS) 1, “Basic principles
governing an audit”, states in para6: “The auditor should respect the
confidentiality of information acquired in the course of his work and
should not disclosed any such information to a third party without specific
authority or unless there is a legal or professional duty to disclosed”.
Auditing and Assurance standard (AAS) 3, “Documentation” (paragraph
13), states: ‘working papers are the property of the auditor. The auditor
may at his discretion, make portions of or extracts from his working
papers available to his client. “AAS 3 further requires (paragraph
14)”,inter alia, that the “auditor should adopt reasonable procedures for
custody and confidentiality of his working papers.”
2. part l of the second schedule to the chartered Accountants Act,
1949, provides that “A Chartered Accountant in practice shall be deemed
to be guilty of professional misconduct, if he disclosed information
acquired in the course of his professional engagement to any person
other than his client, without the consent of his client or otherwise than as
required by any law for the time being in force.”
3. Request are sometime received by the members of the institute,
who have/had been performing the duties as the auditor of an
enterprises, to provide access to their audit working papers. The request
may be made by the clients or other auditors of the enterprise or its
related enterprise such as a parent enterprise.
4. It is hereby clarified that except to the extent stated in para 5 below,
an auditor is not required to provide the client or the other auditors of the
same enterprise or its related enterprise such as a parent or a subsidiary,
53
access to his audit working papers. The main auditors of an enterprise do
not have right of access to the audit working papers of the branch
auditors. In the case of a company, the statutory auditor has to consider
the report of the branch auditor and has a right to seek clarifications
and/or to visit the branch if he deems it necessary to do so for the
performance of the duties as auditor. An auditor can rely on the work of
another auditor, without having any right of access to the audit working
papers of the other auditor. For this purpose, the term ‘auditor’ includes
‘internal auditor’.
5. As stated in para 4, the client does not have a right to access the
working papers of the auditor. However, the auditor may, at his discretion,
in case considered appropriate by him, make portions of or extracts from
his working papers available to the client.
3.8.7 FEATURES
As audit working papers are quite useful they should be prepared
properly. They should have the following essentials:
a) Standard form - they should be prepared in a standard form. The
subject matter should be arranged under various heading and subheadings.
b) Proper layout – there should be proper design and layout of the
working papers. This will bring uniformity into the maintenance of
working papers.
c) Space for margins – there should be enough space for margin after
each note for noting down the auditor’s remarks and decisions.
d) proper organisation and arrangement – the working papers should
be properly organized and arranged. In other words the working
papers should be so organized and arranged that the auditor will be
able to locate any particular matter easily.
e) Completeness – the audit working papers should be complete in all
respects. They should contain detailed information on all essential
facts or points.
f) Clarity and Accuracy – the working papers should be quite clear
and self explanatory. The information contained in the working
papers should be accurate.
g) Good quality paper – paper of good quality should be used for
working papers as they are subject to frequent handling further the
paper used should be of uniform and convenient size so that they can
be easily filed.
3.8.8 OWNERSHIP, AND CUSTODY OF WORKING PAPERS
Working papers are the property of the auditor. The auditor may, at his
discretion may, at his discretion, make portions of or extracts from his
working papers available to his client. Audit working papers are the
54
property of the auditor and he is entitled to retain them. (chantery martin
& co. v. martin).
55
4
AUDITING TECHNIQUES AND INTERNAL
AUDIT INTRODUCTION I
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Test Checking Meaning
4.2 Features Of Test Checking
4.3 Factors To Be Considered
4.4 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Test Checking
4.5 Test Checking Vs Routing Checking
4.6 Audit Sampling
4.0 OBJECTIVES
• Know the meaning of Test Checking
• Understand the features of Test Checking
• Know the advantages and disadvantages of Test Checking
• Distinguish between test checking and routing checking
• Understand the meaning of Audit sample
4.1 TEST CHECKING MEANING
4.1.1 Meaning: Examination in Depth means examination of a few
selected transactions from the-beginning lo. the end through the entire
flow of the transaction. It involves studying the recording of transactions
the
various stages through which they have passed 2. Aspects of
Verification
(a) At each stage, relevant records and authorities are examined; it is also
judged whether the person who has | exercised the authority in
relation to the transactions is fit to do so in terms of-the prescribed
procedure.
(b) While auditing in depth, the Auditor reviews all the accounting
and operational aspects of the| transaction from the origin to the
end. This enables him to have an overall view and evaluate the
procedures through selected transactions.
3. A Representative Sample must be open and each item selected
must be traced meticulously. :
4. A smaller number of transactions are checked at each
successive stage with a in-depth test, on statistical grounds (based
on probability theory) that the optimum sample size decreases as
the Auditor's "level oft confidence" concerning the functioning of the
56
system increases.
5. Examination in depth reconstructs the audit trail and
reveals more about the functioning (or malfunctioning) of the
client's system in practice than the haphazard and mechanical
approach to testing
6. Example: Audit in depth of transactions relating to purchase of
goods involves verification of the following
(a) Purchase Requisition - pie-printed, pre-numbered and authorised;
(b) Invitation of quotations and analysis of the same;
(c) Official Purchase Order, sequentially pre-numbered, authorised and
placed with approved suppliers only;
(d) Receipt of goods, together with Delivery Challan / Advice Note;
(e) Admission of goods to stores after verification of quality, quantity etc.;
(f) Entry in Stores Records;
(g) Receipt of Supplier's Invoice and Statement;
(h) Approval of Purchase Invoice regarding compliance for specification,
quantity and quality;
(i) Entries in Purchases day book;
(j) Postings to Purchase Ledger and Purchase Ledger Control Account;
(k) Payment of Cheque in settlement of invoice after availing discounts; if
any;
(1) Entry for payment in Cash / Bank Book;
(m) Posting from Cash Book to Ledger and Control Accounts.
1. Test Checking means to select and examine a representative sample
from a large number of similar items.
2. Test Checking is an accepted auditing procedure wherein instead of
checking all transactions, only a part of it is checked in detail to form an
opinion on the whole
4.2 FEATURES OF TEST CHECKING
Test checking consists of selecting and checking a proportion of
transactions selected by the Auditor. The salient features of Test
Checking are -
1. Scientific: It is a mathematical truth that a scientifically selected
sample would reveal the features and characteristics of the population.
The statistical theory of sampling is based on a scientific law. Hence, it
57
can be relied upon to a greater extent than any arbitrary technique which
lacks basis and acceptability.
2. Estimation Process: Test Checking and Sampling can never
.bring complete reliability; it cannot give accurate results. It is a
process of estimation. What error is tolerable for a particular matter
under examination is a matter of the individual's judgment in that
particular
3. Coverage of material items: Entries involving large amounts or
relating to material accounts are ..seen exhaustively and other entries
are picked up for verification from the remainder according to a certain
plan. Sometimes entries are checked for a few specified months
exhaustively and the rest go unchecked.
4. Full Coverage over a time period: Test Check is normally
planned in such a way that the audit programmes for 3 to 5 years
cover all types of transactions in case of a medium or large sized
Company. Thus, if in one year the months of January, June and
December are checked; April, July and September may be checked in
the second year and so on.
5. Surprise Element: The staff and management of the Auditee
Company should not be able to anticipate the pattern of test checking,
otherwise they will predict the areas and periods to be covered in any
one year and will be careful regarding the same.
6. Flexibility: If test checking becomes routine, predictable and
mechanical, it loses its value. Hence, the Auditor should keep
changing the methods of test checking at reasonably frequent intervals.
7. Judgment Based: The extent of test checking would primarily
depend on the Auditor's judgment of a particular situation. This
judgement in turn depends on tne previous experience of the
Auditor, current developments and the efficacy of Internal Control
System.
4.3 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
The factors to be considered for deciding upon the extent of checking on
a sampling plan are -
1. Size of the organization under audit.
2. State and efficacy of the internal control.
3. Adequacy and reliability of books and records.
4. Tolerable error range.
5. Degree of the desired confidence.
58
WHEN TEST CHECK CAN BE USED?
Test checks can be adopted in the following cases -
1. Volume of Transactions: In case of big concerns where number of
transactions is quite large.
2. Time factor: Where the Auditor has very little time at his disposal to
check all the transactions of a medium or large sized concern.
Identical Transactions: When there are a number of transactions of
identical and homogeneous nature. Internal Control: When there exists
a satisfactory internal control system, manual and / or computerized.
4.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TEST
CHECKING
4.4.1 ADVANTAGES OF TEST CHECKING
The advantages of Test Checking include -
Audit Objective: The Auditor is required to form an opinion on the
Financial Statements. Even after 100% checking, he may not derive
absolute satisfaction. Hence, proper and careful test checking serves
the audit objective in obtaining reasonable audit assurance.
Expertise: Application of test check principles involves the application
of mind and intelligent judgment. It enables the Auditor to use his
expertise effectively.
Exception Principle: Test Checking adopts the principle of
exception in control. If certain aspects of internal control do not create
suspicion, there is no need to verify all those transactions exhaustively.
Scientific Assessment of Risk: The Auditor assesses the risk of
material misstatements in the Financial Statements in a scientific
manner by drawing suitable samples and studying the same in detail.
Saving in time: As fewer transactions are verified, time is saved to a
great extent. This, in turn, enables completion of all the audits /
verification procedures in time.
Reduction in Work: Volume of work is reduced by test checking
methods. Audit processes are not carried out mechanically on ail
transactions.
59
4..4.2 DISADVANTAGES PRECAUTIONS
The disadvantages of Test Checking are –
Naive and Biased: The extent to which test checking can be resorted
to is a matter of Auditor's personal assessment. It does not ensure
selection of representative samples of adequate size and offers
opportunities for bias to enter into selection process.
Unauthentic : Test Checking lacks authenticity, precision and an
acceptable basis. It does not give the Auditor an idea about the degree
of reliability that can be placed on the findings for application to the
whole set of entries.
Higher Risk: runs the risk that some of the material error may not
be discovered and some of the important areas may go unaudited.
Sometimes, it may increase the level of inherent Audit Risk.
Unscientific: It involves lot of arbitrariness on the part of the Auditor
in determining and selecting the number of transactions. Therefore,
the approach cannot be considered as a scientific one.
Difference in activity levels: Where activity levels vary in a year, e.g.
a few months of peak production and sales seasons, the Auditor
cannot draw reasonable conclusions about the transactions of the
whole year merely by checking transactions of a few specified months.
60
Lack of Surprise Element: If the surprise element is absent, the client
may predict the pattern of checking.
4.5 TEST CHECKING VS ROUTING CHECKING
Particulars Test checking Routine checking
Meaning Test checking is an accepted
auditing procedure wherein
only a part of its transactions
is checked to form an
opinion instead of checking
the transactions.
Routine checking is the
detailed checking of all
transactional aspects such
as casts, sub – casts,
carry-forwards, extensions
and calculations etc. in
subsidiary books, checking
of posting into the ledgers,
casting of ledger accounts
and extraction of their
balances etc.
Objectives To obtain a reasonable level
of satisfaction about all
transactions but verifying a
few representative
transactions called “sample”.
(a) to verify the
arithmetical accuracy of
the entries,
(b) to verify the accuracy
of posting to ledgers.
© to check that the ledger
accounts have been
correctly balanced, and
(d) to ensure that no
figures are altered after
checking.
Advantages (a) Saving in time.
(b) Proper and careful test
checking is helpful & serves
the audit objective.
© Volume of work is
reduced.
(d) Time available for other
audits.
(a) Checking of posting
and ledgers.
(b) Arithmetical accuracy
can be checked.
© Trial balance tallying is
facilitated.
(d) Easy detection of
errors and frauds.
(e) Delegation of audit
work to junior staff.
Disadvantage
s
(a) Client staff may become
careless.
(b) Some errors and frauds
may go undetected.
© All items and transactions
are not checked.
(d) An elements of doubt and
risk is present in the
Auditor’s opinion.
(a) Is a highly mechanical
process.
(b) Monotonous activity
may lead to boredom.
© Major items of frauds
and high level intricacies
and complexities may not
be revealed.
(d) Compensating Errors
and Errors of Principle will
not come to light.
61
4.6 AUDIT SAMPLING
4.6.1 MEANING:
1. The purpose of this Auditing and Assurance Standard (AAS)
is to establish standards on the design and selection of an audit
sample and the evaluation of the sample results. This AAS applies
equally to both statistical sampling methods. Either method, when
properly applied, can provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence
2. When using either statistical or non-statistical sampling
methods, the auditor should design and select an audit
sample, perform audit procedures thereon, and evaluate
sample results so as to provide sufficient appropriate audit
evidence.
3. “Audit sampling” means the application of audit procedures
to less than 100% of the items within an account balance about
some characteristic of the items selected in order to form or assist
in forming a conclusion concerning the population.
4. It is important to recognise that certain testing procedures do
not come within the definition of sampling. Tests performed on
100% of the items within a population do not involve sampling.
Likewise, applying audit procedures to all items within a population
which have a particular characteristic (for example, all items over a
certain amount)does not qualify as audit sampling with respect to
the population examined, nor with regard to the population as a
whole, since the items were not selected from the total population
on a basis that was expected to be representative. Such items
might imply some characteristic of the remaining portion of the
population but would not necessarily be the basis for a valid
conclusion about the remaining portion of the population.
4.6.2 FACTORS IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE- SAMPLING
RISK
(1)When determining the sample size, the auditor should consider
sampling risk, the tolerable error, and the expected error. Examples
of some factors affecting sample size are contained in Appendix 1
and Appendix 2.
SAMPLING RISK
(2) Sampling risk20 arises from the possibility that the auditor
conclusion, based on a sample, may be different from the
conclusion that would be reached if the entire population were
subjected to the same audit procedure.
62
(3) The auditor is faced with sampling risk in both tests of control
and substantive procedure as follow:
(a) Tests of control:
(I) Risk of under reliance: The risk that, although the sample
result dose not support the auditor’s assessment of control
risk, the actual compliance rate would support such an
assessment.
(II) Risk of over reliance: The risk that, although the sample
result supports the auditor’s assessment of control risk, the
actual compliance rate would not support such as an
assessment.
(b) Substantive procedures:
(I) Risk of incorrect rejection: The risk that, although the sample
results the supports the conclusion that a recorded account
balance or class of transactions is materially misstated, in fact
it is not materially misstated.
(II) Risk of incorrect acceptance: The risk that, although the
sample result supports the conclusion that a recorded account
balance or class or transactions is not materially misstated.
(4) The risk of under reliance and the risk of incorrect rejection
affect audit efficiency as they would ordinarily lead to
additional work being performed by the auditor, or the entity,
which would establish that the initial conclusions were
incorrect. The risk of over reliance and the risk of incorrect
acceptance affect audit effectiveness and are more likely to
lead to an erroneous opinion on the financial statements than
either the risk of under reliance or the risk of incorrect
rejection.
(5) Sample size is affected by the level of sampling risk the auditor
is willing to accept from the results of the sample. The lower
the risk the auditor is willing to accept, the greater the sample
size will need to be.
Tolerable Error
1. Tolerable error is the maximum error in the population that the
auditor would be willing to accept and still conclude that the result
from the sample has achieved the audit objective. Tolerable error is
considered during the planning stage and, for substantive
procedures, is related to the auditor's judgement about materiality.
The smaller the tolerable error, the greater the sample size will
need to be.
16. In tests of control, the tolerable error is the maximum rate of
63
deviation from a prescribed control procedure that the auditor would
be willing to accept, based on the preliminary assessment of control
risk. In substantive procedures, the tolerable error is the maximum
monetary error in an account balance or class of transactions that
the auditor would be willing to accept so that when the results of all
audit procedures are considered, the auditor is able to conclude,
with reasonable assurance, that the financial statements are not
materially misstated.
Expected Error
2. If the auditor expects error to be present in the population, a
larger sample than when no error is expected ordinarily needs to be
examined to conclude that the actual error in the population is not
greater than the planned tolerable error. Smaller sample sizes are
justified when the population is expected to be error free. In
determining the expected error in a population, the auditor would
consider such matters as error levels identified in previous audits,
changes in the entity's procedures, and evidence available from
other procedures
4.6.3 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE
18. The auditor should select sample items in such a way that
the sample can be expected to be representative of the
population. This requires that all items in the population have
an opportunity of being selected.
19. While there are a number of selection methods, three methods
commonly used are:
Random selection, which ensures that all items in the population
have an equal chance of selection, for example, by use of random
number tables.
Systematic selection, which involves selecting items using a
constant interval between selections, the first interval having a
random start. The interval might be based on a certain number of
items (for example, every 20th voucher number) or on monetary
totals (for example, every Rs 1,000 increase in the cumulative value
of the population). When using systematic selection, the auditor
would need to determine that the population is not structured in
such a manner that the sampling interval corresponds with a
particular pattern in the population. For example, if in a population
of branch sales, a particular branch's sales occur only as every
100th item and the sampling interval selected is 50, the result would
be that the auditor would have selected all, or none, of the sales of
that particular branch.
* Haphazard selection, which may be an acceptable alternative to
random selection, provided the auditor attempts to draw a
representative sample from the entire population with no intention
to either include or exclude specific units. When the auditor uses
this method, care needs to be taken to guard against making a
selection that is biased, for example, towards items which are easily
64
located, as they may not be representative.
4.6.4 EVALUATION OF SAMPLE RESULTS
20. Having carried out, on each sample item, those audit
procedures that are appropriate to the particular audit
objective, the auditor should:
(a) analyse any errors detected in the sample;
(b) project the errors found in the sample to the population;
and
(c) Reassess the
sampling risk.
Analysis of
Errors in the
Sample
21. In analyzing the errors detected in the sample, the auditor will
first need to determine that an item in question is in fact an error. In
designing the sample, the auditor will have defined those conditions
that constitute an error by reference to the audit objectives. For
example, in a substantive procedure relating to the recording of
accounts receivable, a mis-posting between customer accounts
does not affect the total accounts receivable. Therefore, it may be
appropriate to consider this an error in evaluating the sample
results of this particular procedure, even though it may have an
effect on other areas of the audit such as the assessment of
doubtful accounts.
12. When the expected audit evidence regarding a specific sample
item cannot be obtained, he auditor may be able to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence through performing Alternative
procedures. For example, if a positive account receivable
confirmation has been equated and no reply was received, the
auditor may be able to obtain sufficient appropriate suit evidence
that the receivable is valid by reviewing subsequent payments from
the ;customer. If the auditor does not, or is unable to, perform
satisfactory alternative procedures, )r if the procedures performed
do not enable the auditor to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence, the item would be treated as an error.
>3. The auditor would also consider the qualitative aspects of the
errors. These include the nature and cause of the error and the
possible effect of the error on other phases of the audit.
24. In analysing the errors discovered, the auditor may observe that
many have a common eature, for example, type of transaction,
location, product line, or period of time. In such circumstances, the
auditor may decide to identify all items in the population which
possess the common feature, thereby producing a sub-population,
and extend audit procedures in this area. The auditor would then
perform a separate analysis based on the items examined for 3ach
65
sub-population.
Projection of Errors
25. The auditor projects the error results of the sample to the
population from which the sample was selected. There are several
acceptable methods of projecting error results. However, in all the
cases, the method of projection will need to be consistent with the
method jsed to select the sampling unit. When projecting error
results, the auditor needs to keep in mind the qualitative aspects of
the errors found. When the population has been divided into subpopulation, the projection of errors is done separately for each subpopulation and the results are combined.
Reassessing Sampling Risk
26. The auditor needs to consider whether errors in the population
might exceed the tolerable error. To accomplish this, the auditor
compares the projected population error to the tolerable error taking
into account the results of other audit procedures relevant to the
specific control or financial statement assertion. The projected
population error used for this comparison in the case of substantive
procedures is net of adjustments made by the entity. When the
projected error exceeds tolerable error, the auditor reassesses the
sampling risk and if that risk is unacceptable, would consider
extending the audit procedure or performing alternative audit
procedures.
66
5
INTERNAL CONTROL
STRUCTURE
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Meaning and definition of internal control
5.4 Forms of internal control
5.5 Internal audit
5.6 Internal check
5.1 OBJECTIVES:
After studying this unit you will be able to
• Explain the meaning and objectives of internal control.
• Enumerate the features of a good internal control system.
• Distinguish between internal audit and statutory audit.
• Describe the meaning and objectives of internal check system.
• Device system of internal check with regard to cash sales.
credit sales, wages and salaries, purchases, stock etc.
• Explain the duty of the auditor with regard to internal check.
• Understand audit in respect of computerised environment.
67
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Internal control is another important area of auditing. Internal
control refers to a number of checks and controls exercised in a business
to ensure its efficient and economic working. In this unit you will learn the
meaning and objectives of internal control and internal check. You will
also learn various system of internal check and generally understand
audit in respect of computer environment.
5.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF INTERNAL
CONTROL
Internal control is an important tool of management. It assists the
management in the performance of its various functions. It means the built
in cross-checks in the system supplemented with proper supervision and
internal audit carried out by the staff appointed by the organisation These
days business has been become more complex both in nature and size
and the management finds it difficult to get correct information about the
various aspects of the business. Internal control assures the management
that the information supplied to it is reliable and accurate. The Internal
controls are exercised to ensure the accuracy and the reliability of
accounting data and other records, to identify weaker areas of operation
and to improve them to increase operational efficiency of the business, to
safeguard its assets and to ensure orderly conduct of business.
The American Institute of Public Accountants has defined internal
control as the plan of organisation and all the co-ordinate methods, and
measures adopted within a business to safeguards its assets, check the
accuracy and the reliability of its accounting data, promote operational
efficiency and encourage adherence to prescribed managerial policies. A
system of internal control extends beyond those matters which relate
directly to the function of the accounting and financial departments.
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales
defines internal control as "internal control means not only internal check
or internal audit, but the whole system of control financial and otherwise,
established by management in order to carry on the business of the
company in an orderly manner, safeguard its assets and secure as far as
possible accuracy and reliability of its records".
68
If we analyze the above definitions it would be evident that internal
control is a broad term with a wide coverage. It consists of a number of
checks and controls which are exercised in a business to ensure its
efficient and economic working. Thus internal control involves a sort
vigilance and directions over important matters like budget and finance,
purchase and sales and internal administration by the management.
Every business enterprise is expected to devise a suitable system
of internal control in order to carry on the business in an efficient and
orderly manner. These controls are accounting control, budgetary control,
statistical analysis and internal checks and internal audit. In simple words,
it means number of checks and controls over the various activities of a
business. Generally, a system of internal control will include all those
measures which assist a business enterprises to fulfill the following
objectives.
Objective of internal control
• To minimize, if not completely eliminate, wastage and inefficiencies in
business operations and to safeguard the assets of the business.
• To ensure high degree of accuracy and reliability of accounting data
and promote operational efficiency.
• To measure how far the policies of the management are being
implemented, and
• To evaluate the efficiency of performance in all aspects of business
activities and to highlight the weaknesses.
5.4 FORMS OF INTERNAL CONTROL
Various forms of internal control help in ensuring correct and
reliable records of transactions and operational efficiencies. Let us
discuss them in detail.
69
Accounting control
It ensures correct and reliable records of transactions in conformity
with normally accepted accounting principles. Such controls comprise
primarily the plan of organisation and the procedures and records that are
concerned with and directly related to the safeguarding of assets and
liabilities of financial records. Accounting financial controls include
budgetary control, standard cost control, self balancing ledger, bank
reconciliation and internal checks and internal auditing.
Accounting controls deal with the process of recording of
transactions, safeguarding the assets and adherence to prescribed
managerial policies
Administrative control
The scope of this control is very wide. They also include
accounting controls. Such controls comprise of the plan of organisation
that are concerned mainly with operational efficiencies. In short they may
include anything from plan of organisation to procedures, record keeping,
distribution of authority and the process of decision making. They include
controls viz. Time and motion studies, quality control through inspection,
statistical analysis and performance evaluation etc. An auditor should
make a careful review of accounting controls as they have a direct
bearing on the reliability of the financial statements. He is primarily
concerned with the accounting controls.
Internal control and auditor
The position of the auditor regarding internal control has been
stated in the statement of auditing practices issued by the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of India which says "the duty of safeguarding the
assets of a company is primarily that of management and the auditor is
entitled to rely upon the safeguard and internal controls instituted by the
management, although he will take into account the deficiencies, he may
note therein while drafting his audit program". It clearly means that an
auditor is concerned only with the evaluation of internal control to know its
strength and weaknesses. In case he finds that the internal control
70
system is inadequate, he should then plan to carry out detailed
examination of those areas where the system is weak. It is therefore
necessary for the auditor to acquaint himself fully with the internal control
in force and their actual operation. It will help him in the formulation of his
audit program. He may also bring the shortcomings of the internal control
system to the notice of the management.
.
Requisites of a good internal control system
The following are the essential requisites of a good internal control
system :-
i. A well developed plan of organisation with proper delegation of
functional responsibilities should be aevised. No internal control
system can be effective without such plan of organisation.
ii. A scientific system of authorisation and record procedure should be
developed with a view to provide proper control over assets,
liabilities, revenue and expenses of the organisation. It should be
developed in such a fashion as to ensure that a) assets are under
proper custody and they are not improperly applied, b) expenditures
are incurred on getting proper authorisation and c) revenues received
are duly accounted for.
iii. A system of healthy practices and traditions should be developed
with a view to discharge the duties and functions of the various
departments of the organisation smoothly.
iv. Since internal control system is to be exercised by the personnel
employed in the organisation, there should be a team of people with
sound character and integrity who are properly trained and capable
of discharging their responsibilities.
v Constant managerial supervision and periodical review of the system
should be introduced with a view to make the system more efficient
and effective.
71
1. Check Your Progress
1. Define internal control
2. Distinguish between accounting control and administrative control.
3. State whether each of the following is true or false:
a) Internal control is different from internal check.
b) Internal control does not include accounting control
c) Internal control is compulsory in all business organisation
d Internal control include quality control and time and motion
studies.
e) An effective internal control system helps external auditor to
design suitable audit.
5.5 INTERNAL AUDIT
Internal audit is described as the verification of the operations
within the business by a specially assigned staff. It is an important tool of
management to evaluate the correctness of records on a continuous
basis in an organisation.
The term internal audit has been defined as "an independent
appraisal of activity” within an organisation for review of operations as a
basis of service to management. It is a managerial control which functions
by measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of other controIs.
According to Howard F. Stettler, "internal auditing is an
independent appraisal activity within an organisation for the review of
operations as a service to management.”
The overall objective of internal auditing, therefore, is to assist the
management in the effective discharge of their responsibilities by
72
furnishing them with objective analysis, appraisals, recommendations and
pertinent comments concerning the activities reviewed. In short internal
audit assures the management that the system of internal check and
other types of controls are effective in design and operation.
Thus, internal audit is a thorough examination of the accounting
transactions to ensure that-
• The transactions are properly recorded.
• The accounts are maintained systematically and
• There is no possibility for manipulation of accounts or
misappropriation of property of the business.
In modern times, an internal auditor carries a new task. The
traditional function of checking the arithmetical correctness of the
accounts with the help of vouchers and documents and verification of few
items such as stock, cash and fixed assets is not sufficient. The duty of
internal auditor now is to chart the procedure, examine the efficiency and
work on programs of improvement of assessing the effectiveness of
controls. He is expected to plan and arrange his task for effective
functioning, set clear objectives of his own section, phase his objectives,
gain the confidence of the management and demonstrate the value of his
functions in areas of performance.
The internal audit is carried out generally in the same manner as is
followed for a professional audit. However, it varies in form from
enterprise to enterprise according to its size and specific needs. It is
installed in large organisation and is carried out by the salaried staff who
are qualified to conduct professional audit. Being the employee of the
organisation he has to ensure that there is no waste in the organisation.
Internal auditor has to follow the provisions of law, standard auditing
practices and procedure prescribed for professional auditors and by the
professional bodies controlling the audit system in the country. At the
same time internal auditor must be aware of the policies and programs of
the enterprise he should be professionally competent to carry out a
detailed examination of the working of the business. Equipped with
professional expertise and knowledge of the business, he will be in a
better position to make the internal audit system more effective.
73
5.5.1 Objectives of internal audit
The main objectives of internal audit are as under:-
• To verify the correctness and authenticity of the financial records and
statistical records presented to the management.
• To ensure that the standard accounting practices are strictly followed
in the organisation.
• To facilitate early detection of errors and frauds.
• To ensure that all the transactions have been carried out under a
proper authority and by persons authorised for the same in the
business.
• To review the system of internal check from time to time to advice the
management on improvement of the system and to undertake special
investigation for the management.
• To confirm that the liabilities have been incurred by the organisation
for legitimate activities.
Thus, efficiency of internal audit depends on the efficiency of the
staff employed for the purpose, internal audit can be effective only if the
internal auditor is given wider authority to investigate the transactions not
only from financial angles but also from other organizational activities.
Internal auditor should report directly to the top management. He must
operate independently of the accounting and other staff. He must be
given an independent status as an important functionary and a part of the
management.
74
5.5.2 Internal audit v/s statutory audit
Internal audit helps the statutory audit to a large extent. Both the
internal auditor and the statutory auditor have a common interest as far as
authenticity of the accounts are concerned. However soundness of
internal audit relieves the statutory auditor from detailed checking.
The internal auditor reviews the operations and performs such
functions as evaluation, compliance, verification and ensures that policies,
procedures, rules and other type of controls of the business are carried
out efficiently.
He is helpful to statutory auditor in the matter of examination of
books of accounts. Generally, the statutory auditor accepts some of the
detailed checking made by the internal auditor. However, the area of cooperation between internal auditor and statutory auditor is somewhat
limited as the statutory auditor has a responsibility under law to various
authorities, while the internal auditor is responsible only to the
management. The statutory auditor has to carry out his duties in
accordance with standard accounting and auditing practices and
provisions of law which govern the organisation. Before accepting the
checking of accounts and other documents carried out by internal auditor,
the statutory auditor must undertake such test checks necessary to find
out the effectiveness of internal audit.
Both internal auditor and statutory auditor carry out examination of
records and documents and make physical and other verifications.
Despite these similarities there are differences in the status,
responsibilities, approach and scope of work of internal auditor and
statutory auditor.
75
Differences between internal audit and statutory auditThe following are the points of differences between internal audit
and statutory audit:
Internal audit Statutory audit
1. Internal audit is the arrangement
within the organisation to verify
on continuous basis the
correctness and truthfulness of
the transactions by the salaried
staff.
2. Internal audit is not compulsory.
3. Internal audit is carried out by
the staff appointed by the
business enterprises. It is not
necessary that the internal
audit staff should possess the
qualification prescribed for
professional auditor
4. Being an employee of the
organisation internal auditor is
answerable to the
management. His duties,
responsibilities etc. regarding
Statutory audit is the examination of
the books of accounts of the
business by an external auditor and
to report that the profit and loss
account and balance sheet are
drawn according to provisions of
law and the financial statements
reveal the true and fair view of the
results of operations and financial
state of affairs of the business.
Statutory audit is compulsory in
case of business houses
incorporated under the Companies
Act and other acts.
Statutory audit can be carried out
only by those who are qualified for
appointment as per the provision of
the Companies Act and other acts.
The rights, duties, responsibilities
and liabilities of auditors are
governed by the provisions of law.
The auditor is independent of
management.
76
audit work are determined by
the management. The
management can increase the
powers and authority of the
internal auditor. Similarly it can
also curtail his powers.
5. The internal auditor points out
irregularities in the procedural
aspects and suggests ways
and means to rectify the same.
He assures that the financial
operations and other types of
control in force are carried out
in conformity with the
accounting systems.
The statutory auditor is concerned
with the legality and validity of the
transactions of business. His audit
work is based on the financial
statement prepared by the
business.
5.6 INTERNAL CHECK
Internal check is a system enforced in business under which the
recording of business transactions is arranged in such a manner that the
work of one staff member will automatically be checked by others in the
course of recording of transaction itself.
Spicer and Pegler have defined a system of internal check as "an
arrangement of staff duties whereby no one person is allowed to carry
through and record every aspect of a transaction such that without
collusion between two or more persons., fraud is prevented and at the
same time possibilities of errors are reduced to a minimum". De Paula
has defined internal check as "a continuous internal audit carried on by
the staff itself by means of which the work of each individual is
independently checked by other member of the staff."
Thus, under internal check system the staff duties are so arranged
that no one person is allowed to record every aspect of the transactions
and the entire work is distributed among the various members of the staff
in such a manner that the work of one person is automatically checked by
others.
77
The essential elements of internal check are as under-
• Existence of checks on day to day transactions.
• The check is to be carried out continuously as a part of the routine
system.
• The work is divided among the staff and each staff is assigned a
specific task.
• The work of each staff though independent is complementary to the
work of another.
The system of internal check is increasingly recognised by the
auditor specially when the size of the concern is large. The existence of
effective internal check system relieves the external auditor of detailed
checking to a larger extent. The extent to which an external auditor can
depend upon the system of internal check is based on the procedural
tests applied by him to find out the effectiveness of the system. However
the auditor can not be relieved of his responsibility if he was found guilty
of negligence regardless of the fact that he had tested the internal check
in existence in the organisation before he had accepted it as correct.
5.6.1 Objectives of internal check
• To reduce chance of fraud and errors that may be committed by any
member of the staff and make it more difficult. If any fraud is to be
committed two or more persons must collude together.
• To detect fraud and errors easily and correct them promptly.
• To exercise moral pressure among the members of the staff.
• To allocate duties and responsibilities of every person in such a way
that he can be taken to task for any lapse on his part.
• To increase overall efficiency of the members of the staff by
assigning duties based on the principle of division of labour.
78
• To have an accurate and reliable record of all business transactions.
Essentials of good internal check system
• No single staff shall have absolute control over recording of all the
aspects of business transactions by himself.
• The same staff shall not be allowed to have access to all books of
accounts as well as physical custody of the assets.
• Each member of the staff should be made responsible for a specific
work.
• All officials and employees holding responsibility towards cash,
securities or stock should be encouraged to proceed on annual leave
to prevent the concealed fraud.
• The duties of the members of the staff should be changed from time
to time.
• Attempt should be made to introduce mechanical devices to prevent
mis-appropriation of cash.
• Each transaction should pass through a definite route and through
several hands.
• All books, vouchers, documents should be classified and made
available for easy reference.
• Proper record must be maintained of the incoming and outgoing of
goods from the business premises.
79
• Self balancing ledger system should be introduced to make the
system more efficient and effective.
• No undue importance should be given to any staff member and too
much reliance on any staff member should be avoided.
• Division and allocation of duties among the staff members must
provide for an automatic check by others.
5.6.2 Internal check as regard cash sales
Since chances of committing fraud in connection with cash sales
are greater, it calls for devising an efficient and effective system of internal
check. Cash sales may be affected in various ways like a) sale at counter,
b) postal sales, i.e. sales under mail order, and c) sales by representative
and agents. The system of internal check to be followed in each case is
discussed below.
• One salesman should be appointed to look after one counter
independently and should be made responsible for sales effected in
his counter.
• Each salesman must be issued with a separate cash memo book.
The cash memo book must be printed in different colours to identify
different counters of the business.
• Each salesman must maintain a sales sheet. He should record
therein the sales effected by him. The summary of cash sales
effected by him must tally with the cash memos issued by him.
• Cash memos are to be issued with carbon copies.
• The salesman must not receive cash on the cash memos issued by
him.
80
• All payments on the cash memo of the salesman must be made by
the customer at the cash counter.
Sales are to be effected in the following manner
1. Three copies of the cash memo must be issued to customer
2. The customer must present the three copies of cash memo to the
cashier at the time of making payment
3. The cashier must verify the particulars and satisfy himself regarding
the total payment with reference to rates and quantity.
4. The cashier on receiving the payment in cash will place a rubber
stamp on all the copies of memos as "cash paid".
5. He will retain one copy with himself and hand over the other two
copies to the customer.
6. The customer must present the cash memos to the delivery
department to collect the goods purchased.
7. The delivery department will put rubber stamp on the memos as
"goods delivered". It will retain one copy as an evidence for delivery
and hand over another copy of the memo to the customer.
At the end of the day’s working, the sales man, the cashier and the
gate keeper should prepare the summary and submit to the manager or
officer incharge. If these summaries tally, the accounts are certified as
correct.
81
Postal sales i.e. sales under mail order
This includes following aspects:
• All sales made by post i.e. V.P.P should be recorded in a separate
register to be maintained for the purpose.
• The goods returned, if any, should also be recorded in the register.
• The total amount of cash receipts including advance, if any, against
the mail orders should be entered in the register and the same
should be deposited into the bank.
• All the entries in the V.P.P. register should be checked by some
responsible officer and special inquiries should be made in respect of
those goods against which cash has not been received.
• There should be proper filing of mail orders received and the cash
book should be checked with these mail orders.
Sales by representative and agents
It is the practice in big business houses to employ representative
and agent to promote sales and to collect the amount due from debtors.
The system of internal check to be introduced in this connection should
be as follows:
1. The representatives and agents should be authorised to issue rough
receipts to the customers against cash received from them. However,
the final receipt should be issued only by the head office.
2. The customers should be advised to communicate directly with the
head office if they do not get the final receipt within a reasonable time
period.
82
3. The representatives and agents should be instructed to remit the
amount of cash collected by them to the head office without any
delay.
4. The representatives and agents must not be allowed under any
circumstances to deduct their commission or any other expenditure
from the amount of cash collected by them. The bill for commission
and other expenses should be submitted to the head office.
5. As a matter of routine the head office should send periodical
statements of accounts to the customer with a view to apprise them
of the latest position.
6. The representatives and agents should be advised to submit
periodical statements to the head office showing therein the amount
of sales made by them, the amount of cash collected by them and
the names of the defaulters.
7. The head office should issue reminders to those defaulting
customers who have failed to clear their dues.
8 The representatives and agents must not be allowed to operate from
a fixed place. On the contrary, they should be transferred from time
to time to other place in order to increase their efficiency and to avoid
the possibility of committing fraud.
5.6.3 Internal check as regards purchases
Since chances of committing fraud in connection with the
purchases of goods by a big business house are greater, it calls for
devising an efficient and effective control system of internal check. In this
connection one should be familiar with the purchases procedure which
should be as under.
83
• The department requiring the material should fill in the purchase
requisition indicating the quantity and quality to the purchase
department.
• The purchase department on the basis of the requisition will send out
enquiries to the various suppliers asking for quotation.
• On receipt of quotations the order will be placed on the best vendor
taking into account the quality, period of delivery, competitive prices
etc.
• On receiving the order the vendor shall execute the order. The
supplies will be received by the stores department.
• On receipt of goods it will be verified with reference to the order with
the goods received memo issued by the stores department. If the
supplies are made according to the order the delivery note and
invoice sent by the supplier will be forwarded to accounts department
with endorsements for the goods received and taken to stores.
• The invoice will be passed for payment by a senior officer after
verifying the terms and conditions of the supply with reference to
rates and quality and other expenses detailed.
Keeping the above points in view, the following system of internal
check is suggested with regards to purchase:
• There should be separate purchase department.
• Purchase order are to be issued only against indents received from
the various department of the business.
• All orders should be a placed in writing. The order form must be
preferably a printed form containing full details.
84
• The orders must be made in quadruplicate. One copy of the order is
to be sent to the supplier. The second copy is to be sent to the
concerned department which has placed the indent for supply; third
copy is to be sent to account sdepartment and the fourth copy is to
be retained by the purchase department for future reference.
• All orders for purchase, should be signed only by the purchase
manager or the person authorised for this purpose.
• All orders should contain the seal of office.
• The goods received should be inspected with the copy of the order.
• The goods received are to be examined with delivery notes and
supply invoices of the seller regarding quantity, quality and rates.
• The purchase department should make an endorsement putting
rubber stamp on the suppliers bill with reference to goods received.
• After inspection and examination 'Goods Received Note’ is to be
prepared for each lot of purchase. The inspection note should also be
attached to it.
• Endorsement must be made by the purchase manager or the
authorised official (of stores department to take the goods into stock.
• The stores department should acknowledge receipt of goods and
send the same to the order department.
• All packages of incoming goods are to be opened only in the
presence of a responsible official.
• The stores officer on verification of the correctness of the goods
received should enter them in the stock register.
85
• Generally a rubber stamp containing the following certificate will be
placed on the suppliers bill and signed by the purchase manager
"Certified that goods are received as per Order
No,..........Dated...........and taken to stock vide Folio No,............. of
stock register No,............"
• The Payment on purchases must be made only after accounts
department verifies the invoice, goods received note and purchase
order.
• The accounts department should impress a rubber stamp on invoices
which are passed for payment.
• A separate purchase register is to be maintained by the purchase
department
• Ledger clerk should have no access to physical stock register or cash
to avoid manipulation of accounts.
• For inter-branch purchase or inter-company purchases transfer notes
should be issued.
• All Purchases that are made by employee for the personal use must
be accounted for separately.
• A separate return outward book is to be maintained to record the
return of goods to suppliers.
• Credit notes are to be issued for adjusting claims. The purchase
department should send a copy of credit note to accounts
department.
86
• A purchase ledger control account is to be maintained. Ledger
account should be checked periodically against the suppliers
statements.
• A perpetual inventory control method should be adopted to avoid
excess quantity and to maintain minimum quantity.
• Where goods are delivered directly to locations or place of work not
controlled by the purchase department, the invoices are to be passed
by the purchase department only after examining the certificate of
receipt of stock from the authority to whom the goods are delivered.
In general the purchase department must place purchase orders
on the basis of indents, record the order in the purchase day book, enter
the goods received in the goods inward book and send the invoice of the
supplier alongwith the inspection report and goods received notes to the
accounts department for payment.
Internal check as suggested above will avoid irregularities in
purchase and minimize, if not completely eliminate, manipulation of
accounts by entering fictitious purchase or entering invoice twice or misappropriating the discount or commission allowed by the suppliers.
5.6.4 Internal Check as regards Sales
The organisation of the sales department depends on the system
of selling and distribution of goods. Unless the department is organised
properly there are greater possibilities for suppression of sales and
manipulation of accounts. Goods can also be misappropriated. Hence, a
well-knit system of internal check is necessary which may be in the
following manner::
87
1) Sales must be executed against order received from customers.
2) All incoming orders shall be numbered and filled and confirmation of
the orders received be sent to the customers.
3) Proper record is to be maintained for the orders received, order
under execution/executed/refused.
4) The sales shall be authorised by responsible officials after scrutiny
of the order and assessing the portion of supply of goods as well as
the terms and conditions of sales accepted by the customer.
5) All sales orders shall contain invoices prepared in quadruplicate.
One copy is to be retained by the sales department, one to be sent
to the customer, one to the accounts department and the last copy
to despatch section for despatch of goods.
6) Separate departments should deal with cash sales and credit sales.
7) In the case of credit sales a separate register should be maintained
of the customers with financial standing. The credit sale is to be
allowed only after scrutiny of the customer's order for supply of
goods on credit.
8) Periodical statement of the outstanding balance due towards the
customer be sent and confirmation obtained from them.
9) Regular reminders for payment shall be made to the customers
reminding them of their dues.
10) Amount due from the customer shall be written off as bad unless all
methods of recovery are exhausted.
11) The responsible official shall be entitled to treat a debt as bad.
88
12) The sales invoice clerk shall have no access to physical stock or
accounting records.
13) The credit note shall be prepared only after ascertaining the fact
from the despatch section and the sales department for the goods
received back from the customers. Credit notes are to be prepared
in quadruplicate. One is to be retained with the invoice department,
second copy is to be sent to despatch department, third copy to the
sales department and fourth copy to the customer.
14) In case sales are cancelled, a notice is to be given to the despatch
department to stop despatch of goods.
15) The invoice can be cancelled only by the sales department. All sales
invoices must be printed and numbered in serial order.
16) The sales ledger shall be maintained by a separate clerk.
17) Periodical statements should be sent to debtors.
18) In the case of credit sales regular confirmation should be obtained
from the customers regarding the outstanding balances. The
confirmation of balances must be verified by a senior person other
than the ledger clerk.
19) A sales ledger control account shall be balanced with the control
account periodically.
20) A sales ledger control account in the general ledger shall be
maintained.
21) Credit to employees can be allowed only after proper authorization
from the management.
89
22) Separate department should be set up to deal with sales on
consignment, hire purchase, goods on sales or return etc.
23) The stock held by the agents should be verified periodically with the
statements received from the agents.
24) The goods sent on sale or return basis but unsold on the date of the
balance sheet should not be treated as sales but unsold stock.
Internal check system with regards cash received on sales is
suggested under the caption "cash sales". The internal check of the sales
department included the suggestions given for internal check on cash
sales.
5.6.5 Internal Check as regards Wage Payment
In big organization, the work regarding the maintenance of various
type of wage records, computing the amount of wages and the payment
of wages to the right persons are of significant importance. It is, therefore,
necessary to design a proper system of internal check regarding wages
payment to minimize the dangers of fictitious names, errors in wages
records and misappropriation of money. The following system of internal
check is suggested:
1) Workers should be employed only after the written order of the
Personnel Officer or the appointing authority. A copy of the
appointment order be endorsed to the wage preparing section.
2) Separate staff should record attendance of workers, control of leave,
payment of overtime and disbursement of pay packets. Each staff
member shall be responsible to enter relevant information in the
wage sheet. He should also put initials for the work completed by
him.
3) The wage sheet shall contain columns for recording relevant
information with regard to payment of wages such as name of the
employee, designation, period for which wages are paid, rate of pay,
90
amount of basic pay, dearness allowance, house rent allowance,
compensatory allowance and other allowance, gross salary drawn,
deductions (there should be separate columns indicating the nature
of deductions) and net amount payable and signature of employees,
for acknowledging the payment.
4) Separate records should be maintained for each worker indicating the
date of appointment, scale of pay, rate of pay, etc. Copies of orders
relating to increase in pay, promotions and punishments, deduction in
wages on account of Provident Fund, Loan, Medical, Ground
Insurance etc. shall be endorsed to wage preparing section.
5) Separate job cards are to be maintained for recording the work
performed by the worker.
6) Each worker is to be given a pay slip indicating the gross wages and
net wages.
7) Separate register is to be maintained for recording the name of
workers who may be allowed to work overtime. No worker shall be
allowed to work overtime without the prior sanction of the proper
authority.
8) Time recording clocks shall be installed at the main gate of the
factory for recording the arrival and departure of workers.
9) The rosters of workers for each work should be prepared and copy of
the same be sent to the wage preparing section.
10) Late arrival of workers shall be entered in a separate register and the
same be sent to the personnel section for future reference.
11) Proper watch and ward arrangement is to be maintained to record the
arrival of the workers and the time of leaving the factory.
91
12) The rate of wages of each worker is to be periodically checked with
reference to rate card.
13) All calculations regarding gross wages and net wages payable after
deduction are to be checked by an independent person.
14) In the wage sheet the names of workers, rates of pay, the period for
wage to be paid shall be entered by one person. The calculations
regarding gross wages payable shall be made by another person.
The deductions under various heads shall be made by a third person.
The net wages payable and the checking of the wages sheet with
reference to leave deductions etc. should be made by a senior staff
member. The wages sheet shall be signed by the authorised official.
15) If the wages are to be paid on the basis of piece wage system, the
actual work done by each worker must be maintained on a job card
to be given to each worker. These cards should be counter signed by
the foreman of the department and the store department to which the
goods produced are delivered.
16) The wage sheet shall be prepared in triplicate. One copy shall be
endorsed to pay master, the second copy to the account section and
final copy shall be retained by the wage preparing section.
5.6.6 Internal check system and auditor
The soundness of the system of internal check and the way it is
put into operation in the organisation are matter of great importance for
the auditor. In case the system of internal check is effective the work of
the external auditor becomes quite easy. He is relieved of the detailed
and routine checking of the transaction as the internal check system takes
care of the same. In case the internal check system is not effective, then
the auditor should have to decide the extent of detailed checking to be
undertaken in order to satisfy himself about the authenticity of the
business records. It is, therefore, necessary for the auditor to study the
system in force in the organisation; this he can do by applying few test
checks and if the results are satisfactory he can depend on the internal
check system. In case the internal check system in force is weak or
defective then he should carry out detailed checking of the accounting
92
records. In case he does not do so he may be held liable for all the
undetected errors and frauds. He should not show any negligence in his
duty. He should design the audit program keeping in view the weak links
of the system. He should also suggest the changes to the management
strengthening the system of internal check. It should be noted that the
existence of a sound internal check system in an organisation helps the
auditor to a great extent in audit work, but does not reduce his legal
liability at all.
5.6.7 Distinguish between internal check and internal control
Ans. Point Internal check Internal control
1. Meaning
2. Relation
3. Essence
It is a system of
allocation of
responsibility, division of
work and methods of
recording transactions,
whereby the work of one
employee is checked
continuously by another.
It is a part of Internal
Control.
It is arrangement of
book-keeping and
Olerical duties.
Checks are automatic
and continuous.
It is the system of control
established by the
management in order to
carry on business in an
orderly and efficient
manner, ensure
adherence to
management policies,
safeguard assets and
completeness of records.
It includes Internal check
and Internal audit.
It includes the essence of
Internal check and
internal audit.
It includes the
implementation of Internal
check and Internal audit.
It includes Internal check
and Internal audit.
93
4.How are they
implemented.
5. Nature
Checks are objective.
5.6.8 Audit in respect of computer environment (E.D.P. audit).
The principal object of the audit is to ensure that the accounts on
which the auditor is reporting show a true and fair view of the state of
affairs at a given date and of the results for the period ended on that date.
The essential features of an audit appropriate for medium or large sized
concerns are :-
a) An evaluation of the system of accounting and internal control to
ascertain whether they are appropriate for the business and properly
record all transactions
b) The making of such tests and enquiries as are considered necessary
to determine whether the systems are being operated correctly.
c) An examination of account in order to verify :-
i) The title, existence and value of the assets appearing in the
balance sheet and to verify that all liabilities are correctly
included therein.
ii) That the result shown by the profit and loss account is fairly
stated.
And to ensure that such accounts are in accordance with the
underlying records and comply with the appropriate statutory
requirements.
94
The overall scope and objective of an audit does not change in an
E.D.P. environment. However, the use of a computer changes the
processing and storage of financial information and may effect the
organisation and procedures employed by the entity to achieve adequate
internal control. Accordingly, the procedures followed by the auditor in his
study and evaluation of accounting system and related internal controls
and nature, timing and extent of his other audit procedures may be
affected by an EDP environment.
The prime objective of EDP audit is to determine whether
computer system safeguard assets, maintain data integrity, achieve
organizational goals effectively and consume resources efficiently. A
proper system of internal control is necessary to ensure that the
objectives are met. It may be remembered that the overall objectives and
scope of an audit does not change in an EDP environment. However, the
use of a computer changes the processing and storage of financial
information and may affect the organisation and procedure employed by
the entity to achieve adequate internal control.
The auditor should take the following steps in addition to the normal
audit procedure while auditing the computerised accounts.
1) Computerised accounting involves the code list for various types of
accounts. The auditor should obtain the list of such codes and ensure
that they are correctly used.
2) In manual accounting procedure each and every stage of recording
the transactions is visible viz Preparing vouchers, passing entry,
posting in ledger, casting, balancing, grouping, pre-paration of trial
balance and final accounts. However, when the accounts are
computerised it is not possible for the auditor to check each and
every stage of recording the transactions as every thing is done by
the computer behind the screen. Therefore, in such a situation it
becomes necessary for the auditor to ensure that the functioning of
the computer is correct and reliable. For this purpose he should
select a sample of some transactions for processing and should
compare the results obtained through computer processing with
predetermined result.
3) In case of computerised accounts, the records of transactions are
stored on floppy disks as back up data. These disks are affected by
95
heat, dust etc. The auditor should ensure that proper precautions
have been taken by the client for the safe custody of such disks.
4) He should ensure that client has made a proper arrangement for
protecting the computer data from "Virus".
5) He should ensure that there is proper control over the use of
computers by the various users through "Passwords"
6) He should ensure that there is proper maintenance of computers by
doing servicing at regular intervals. This will reduce the chances of
break down and losses of records.
7) The accuracy of computer output depends upon the correctness of
input. He should ensure that there is a proper system for checking of
the output with the inputs on a regular basis.
8) Lastly, he should ensure that changes in software programs are
carried out by authorised person only and such changes are property
noted for future reference.
5.7 INTERNAL CONTROL
MEANING & PURPOSE
Control is a basic human requirement and it has existed throughout the
ages in different facets of human activity. Business as such is a complex
process and has grown even more complex with the technological
advancement of the society. The formalization of the concept of internal
control in the sphere of business administration is a comparatively recent
phenomenon.
In the sphere of a business, control is an accepted device for
optimum utilization of the resources and opportunities for maximisation of
profits. All operations of a business are carried on with the help of human
agents and equipment; both these factors need supervision so that the
96
tasks assigned to them are properly carried out and avoidable wastes and
losses do not occur to eat up the fruit of the enterprises.
The internal control required by a sole proprietor of small business is not
identical with that required for a large industrial organization. A small
trader having a grocery shop hardly needs more than one or two
assistants. He decides work to be done by the assistants. He always
knows his own stock, cash and bank position. He has the knowledge of
daily sales. He himself knows the sources for purchases. He keeps the
record of the debtors and creditors. The assistants merely help him in
delivering doors to customers or to arrange the goods in proper order.
From the above, it can be observed that control is entirely
centralized with the owner and there is no significant delegation of duties.
However, as the business grows in size it soon reaches a stage where the
owner can no longer keep himself intimately informed about the detailed
operations of his business, activities of the employee and their discharge
of their responsibilities. To cope with the increasing size and volume of
business, he has to employ more and more people and for systematically
carrying on the business, he has to specify the tasks for each person. For
remote operations he has also to rely upon these people, for carrying out
the work, for the custody of the materials, documents and equipments
entrusted to them. He has also to ensure that the equipment and facilities
are properly maintained. For this purpose, he has to give shape to a form
of organization from which he would be in a position to know the board
details of the work involved and the persons responsible for such work.
Also, he has to work out a plan of delegation of duties and authority for
the simple reason that, for anything and everything. People need not
come to him for advice or decision, because, under such circumstances,
he would not be able to find time to apply his mind to matters of more
importance.
Human behavior is such that if it is not under some sort of regulation or
control, it often tends to depart from the proper path. It needs to be kept
under systematic watch not only for ensuring that the employee does he
work, but also to see that he does it in the manner laid down for the
purpose and handles the materials and equipments with proper care.
97
REVIEW OF INTERNAL CONTROL
A review of internal control can be done by a process of study,
examination and evaluation of the control system installed by the
management. The first step involves determination of the control and
procedures laid down by the management. By reading company manuals,
studying organization charts and flow charts and by making suitable
enquiries from the officers and employees, the auditor may ascertain the
character, scope and efficacy of the control system. To acquaint himself
about how all the accounting information is collected and processed and
to learn the nature of controls that makes the information reliable and
protect the company’s assets, calls for considerable skill and knowledge.
In many cases, very little of this information is available in writing; the
auditor must ask the right people the right questions if he is to get the
information he wants. It would be better if he makes written notes of the
relevant information and procedures contained in the manual or
ascertained on enquiry.
To facilitate the accumulative of the information necessary for the proper
review and evaluation of internal controls, the auditor can use one of the
following to help him to know and assimilate the system and evaluate the
same:
(1) Narrative record;
(2) Check list;
(3) Questionnaire; and
(4) Flow chart;
(1) The narrative record is a complete and exhaustive description of the
system as found in operation by the auditor. Actual testing and
observation are necessary before such a system is in operation and
would be more suitaed to small business. The basic disadvantages of
narrative records are:
1. To comprehend the system is operation is quit difficult.
2. To identify weaknesses or gaps in the system
3. To incorporate charges arising on account of reshuffling of manpower,
etc.
98
(2) A check list is a series of instruction and/or answer. When he
completes instruction, he initials the space against the instruction.
Answers to the check list instruction are usually Yes, No or Not
applicable. This is again an on the job requirement and instructions are
framed having regard to the desirable element of control. A few examples
of check list instruction are given hereunder:
1. Are tenders called before placing orders?
2. Are the purchases made on the basis of a written order?
3. Is the purchase order form standardized?
4. Are purchase order forms are pre-numbered?
5. Are the stock control accounts maintained by persons who have
nothing to do with:
(1) Custody of work;
(2) Receipt of stock;
(3) Inspection of stock; and
(4) Purchase of stock?
The complete check list is studied by the principle/manager/senior to
ascertain existence of internal control and evaluate its implementation
and efficiency.
(3) Internal control questionnaire is a comprehensive series of
questions concerning internal control. This is the most widely used from
for collecting information about the existence, operation and efficiency of
internal control in an organization.
An important advantage of the questionnaire approach is that oversight or
omission of significant internal control review procedures is less likely to
occur with this method. With a proper questionnaire, all internal control
evaluation can be completed at one time or in sections. The review can
more easily be made on an interim basis. The questionnaire form also
provides an orderly means of disclosing control defects. It is the general
practice to review the internal control system annually and record the
review the detail. In the questionnaire, generally questions are so framed
that a ‘Yes’ answer denotes satisfactory position and a ‘No’ answer
suggests weakness. Provision is made for an explanation or further
99
details of ‘No’ answers. In respect of questions not relevant to the
business, ’Not applicable’ reply is given.
The questionnaire is annually issued to the client and the client is
requested to get it filled by the concerned executives and employees. If
on a perusal of the answers, inconsistencies or apparent incongruities are
noticed, the matter is further discussed by auditor’s staff with the client
employees for a clear picture. The concerned auditor then prepares a
report of deficiencies and recommendation for improvement.
(4) A flow chart is a graphical presentation of each part of the
company’s system of internal control. A flow chart is considered to be the
most concise way of recording the auditor’s review of the system. It
minimises the amount of narrative explanation and thereby achieves and
consideration or presentation not possible in any other form. It gives bird’s
eye view of the system and the flow of transactions and integration and in
documentation, can be easily spotted and improvements can be
suggested.
It is also necessary for the auditor to study the significant features of the
business carried on by the concern: the nature of its activities and various
channels of goods and materials as well as cash, both inward and
outward, : and also a comprehensive study of the entire process of
manufacturing, trading and administration. This will help him to
understand and evaluate the internal controls in the correct perspective.
ADVANTAGES
Auditors' right to rely on Internal Control: The duty of safeguarding the
assets of a Company is primarily that of the Management and the Auditor
is entitled to rely upon the safeguards and Internal Controls instituted by the
Management, although he will, of course, take into account any deficiencies
he may find therein while drafting his Programme.
Audit Assurance: The Auditor needs reasonable assurance that the accounting
system is adequate and that all the accounting information which should be
recorded has infact been recorded. -
100
Integral part of Audit Programme: The examination and evaluation of the
Internal Control System is an indispensable part of the overall Audit
Programme.
Audit Planning: The Auditor should gain an understanding of the accounting
system and related Internal Controls and should study and evaluate the
operations of these Internal Controls upon which he wishes to rely in
determining the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures.
Role of review: The review of Internal Controls will enable the Auditor to know –
(a) Whether errors and frauds are likely to be located in the ordinary course of
operations of the business;
(b) Whether an adequate Internal Control System is in use and operating as
planned by the Management;
(c) Whether an effective Internal Audit department is operating;
(d) Whether any administrative control has a bearing on his work (e.g. when
there is a weak control over
Worker recruitment and enrolment, there is a likelihood of including dummy
names in the wages sheet which is relevant for the Auditor); fe) Whether the
controls adequately safeguard the assets; (f) How far and how adequate is the
Management effectively involved ia discharging its function of correct recording
of transactions is concerned;
,'g) How reliable the reports, records and the certificates to the Management can
be; (h) the extent and depth of the examination that he Auditor needs to
carry out in the different areas of accounting;
(i) What would be the appropriate audit technique and audit procedure in
the given circumstances; (/) what* are the areas where control is weak
and where it is excessive; and (k) whether some worthwhile suggestions
can be given to improve the control system.
(ii) AUDITORS DUTIES
Role of the Auditor vis-Ã -vis Internal Control can be summarized as under -
Management Responsibility: The duty of safeguarding assets of a
Company is primarily that of Management. The Auditor is entitled to rely
upon • safeguards and Internal Controls instituted by the Management.
101
Necessity for Evaluation: The Auditor is interested in ascertaining that
transactions are executed in accordance with the Management's
authorisation, all transactions are recorded properly and assets are
adequately safeguarded. Therefore, the examination and evaluation of the
Internal Control System is an indispensable part of the overall audit
Programme.
Assurance: The Auditor needs reasonable assurance that the accounting
system is adequate 1 .d that all the accounting information which should be
recorded has in fact been recorded in a correct, proper and timely manner.
Internal Control normally contributes to such assurance.
Audit Planning and Programme: The Auditor should gain an understanding
of the accounting system and related Internal Controls. He should study and
evaluate the operations of these Internal Controls upon which he wishes to
rely in determining the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures.
He can formulate his entire audit programme only after he has had a
satisfactory understanding of the Internal Control System and its actual
operation.
Review: If the Auditor reviews the Internal Control System of the client, he will
be in a position to bring to the Management's notice, the weaknesses in the
system and suggest measures for improvement. During the course of his
audit, he may also ascertain how far the weaknesses have been removed.
Audit Procedure: Proper understanding of the Internal Control System
enables the Auditor to decide upon appropriate audit procedure to be applied
in different areas. In areas where Internal Control is considered weak, he
might extend certain tests to cover a large number of transactions or other
items than he otherwise would examine and at times may perform additional
tests to gain necessary satisfaction.
Test Checking: In deciding upon a plan of selective checking (test
checking or sample checking), the existence and operation of Internal
Control System is of great significance.
Reporting: Under CARO, the Statutory Auditor of a Company has to
report on the following aspectsrelating to Internal Control
(a) Is there an adequate Internal Control System commensurate with the size of
the Company and the nature of its business, for the purchase of Inventory and
Fixed Assets and for sale of goods and services?
102
(b) Whether there is a continuing failure to correct major weakness in Internal
Control System?
A senior assistant of»X &:Co. Chartered Accountants dfevyupHjisiaudit
Programme without! Evaluating the Internal Controls of T Ltd. When the
Partner asked the reason, he stated that the’ controls were developed by
the General Manager (Finance) of T Ltd., who is also a Chartered
Accountant and who had written a few books on subinterval Control" and
therefore there, wqsjno reed to review foe said^qr«?o. State your viewpoints.
1. A proper understanding of the Internal Control System enables the
Auditor to decide upon the nature, extent and timing of the appropriate
substantive audit procedures ro be performed.
2. Although Internal Control is Management's responsibility, the Auditor-
(a) Should independently gain an understanding of the accounting system and
related Internal Controls and
(b) Should study and evaluate the operation of those Internal Controls upon
which he wishes to rely in determining the nature, timing and exient of
other audit procedures.
3. Where the Auditor concludes that he can rely on certain Internal Controls,
his substantive procedures would normally be less extensive than would
otherwise be required. It may also differ as to their nature and timing.
4. Where Internal Control is weak, the Auditor might choose such an
auditing procedure / test that might not be required otherwise. He might
extend certain tests to cover a large number of transactions or other
items than he otherwise would examine at times and perform additional
tests for his satisfaction.
5. Just because the Internal Control was developed by a Chartered
Accountant who had also authored a book on Internal Control is of no
significance and does not absolve the Statutory Auditors' duties. The
Auditor must independently understand and evaluate the Internal
Controls to develop a proper audit Programme.
REVIEW OF INTERNAL CONTROLS
INHERENT LIMITATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL
Internal control can provide only reasonable, but not absolute, assurance
that the objectives stated above are achieved. This is because there are
some inherent limitations of internal controls, such as:
(a) Management’s consideration that a control be cost effective;
103
(b) The fact that most controls do not tend to be directed at transactions
of unusual nature;
(c) The potential for human error;
(d) The possibility of circumvention of controls through collusion with
parties outside the entity or with employees of entity;
(e) The possibility that a person responsible for exercising control could
abuse that authority, for example, a member of management
overriding a control;
(f) The possibility that procedures may become inadequate due to
changes in conditions and compliance with procedures may
deteriorate;
(g) Manipulations by management with respect to transactions or
estimates and judgements required in the preparation of financial
statements.
INTERNAL CONTROL SAMPLES FOR SALES & DEBTORS,
PURCHASES & CREDITORS, WAGES & SALARIES
Sales and debtors
The primary Internal Control measures in relation to Sales & Debtors are -
j. All documents like Invoices, Delivery Challans, etc. should be serially
numbered and missing documents promptly investigated.
Despatch, sales and invoicing functions are to be segregated.
Delivery Challan shall be verified by the carrier before dispatch.
4. Delivery Challan shall be verified with customer's Purchase Order before
dispatch and serially filed.
5. Customers' acknowledgement for goods despatched must be promptly
obtained.
6. Invoices prepared for all deliveries are to be sent to customers within a
reasonable time.
7. Prices on invoices must be as per standard-price list and all unusual
discounts / price reductions should be duly authorised.
8. Proper recording of returned goods should be made and Credit Notes
duly authorised and verified with j related invoices.
9. Adequate records shall be maintained for part deliveries.
10. Listings in Sales Ledger balances shall be regularly balanced with Control
Account.
104
11. Cheque received by post are to be recorded and bearer cheques must be
stamped "A/c Payee only".
12. Record of receipts shall be duly verified with the bank pay-in-slip after deposit
and also with the Cash Book.
13. Duties of personnel responsible for recording Sales Ledgers, receipts of
cash and issue of receipts shall be segregated.
14. Cash takings/collections have to be matched with invoices.
J 5. Segregation of duties shall be defined between persons recording
transactions and extracting balances.
16. Listings of Sales Ledger Balances shall be reconciled periodically with
Control Accounts, by independent persons.
17. Ageing analysis shall be prepared and checked. Old balances should be
followed up.
18. Statements shall be regularly sent, reconciliation with customer balances
prepared at regular intervals and reconciling items shall be followed up.
19. Credit limits shall be checked before orders are accepted.
Important Internal Control measures in relation to Purchase & Creditors are -
Orders shall be supported by authorised requisitions and duly approved by a
responsible official.
Tenders should be invited before placing orders.
Purchase orders have to be pre-numbered and serially controlled.
Goods Receiving Department should be adequately staffed to inspect, record
and store goods received.
Goods Received Notes have to be pre-numbered and serially controlled.
The following duties should be segregated-
(a) Preparing Goods Received Notes;
(b) Recording goods received on Stock Records;
(c) Custody and authorizing issue of stores;
(d) Verification of Goods Received Notes with Invoices.
105
Invoices shall be verified with rates on Purchase Orders and calculations should
be checked before posting.
Goods Received Notes lying unmatched with invoices shall be duly followed
up and liabilities for goods
Received at year-end should be duly recorded.
Invoices should be recorded in an Invoice Register only upon receipt.
Suppliers' Statements shall be regularly reconciled.
Listings in Purchase Ledger Balance shall be reconciled periodically with the
respective Control Accounts.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
INTERNAL CHECK INTERNAL CONTROL
(1) Internal check means the
arrangement of work different
employees in such a manner that
work of any person is automatically
checked by another person is doing
his duty.
(1) Internal control is the whole
system of controls, financial and
otherwise, established by the
management in order to carry on
the business of the company in an
orderly manner, safeguard its
assets and secure as far as
possible the accuracy and reliability
of its records.
(2) It on going continuous process. (2) Internal control is a wider term
which includes internal check,
internal audit, etc.
(3) It is applicable to both, small &
large organizations.
(3) Generally it is more applicable
to large organizations where there
are many departments.
(4)Relatively it is cheaper. (4) Relatively setting up of internal
control system is costly and time
consuming.
106
INTERNAL TEST CHECK V/S INTERNAL CHECKS
PARTICULARS TEST CHECK INTERNAL CHECK
1. MEANING it stands for the method of
auditing when instead of a
complete examination of
all the transaction
recorded in the books of
account only some of the
transaction are selected
and verified.
It refers to a system of
book-keeping and
arrangement of staff
duties in the organization
in such a manner that no
one person can
completely carry through a
transaction and record
every aspect thereof.
2. INSTITUTED
BY
It is an audit procedures
performed by the auditor
in respect of only selected
group of transactions.
It is a series of procedures
laid down by the
management.
3.OBJECTIVE The purpose is to aid
auditors to check and
draw conclusions about
the voluminous
transactions.
Its objective is to facilitate
management functions.
4. FRAUD &
ERRORS
It helps the auditor to
unearth frauds and errors
without checking all the
transactions.
It is instituted to prevent
frauds and errors.
5. MGMT
CONTROL
Management has no
control over the test
checks carried out by the
auditors.
Internal controls are
subject to review,
appraisal and changed by
the management.
INTERNAL AUDIT
MEANING:
It is a review of the operations and records, sometimes continuously
undertaken, within a business, by specially assigned staff. But internal
audit must not be confused with internal check. Internal check consists of
a set of rules or procedures that are part of the accounting system,
introduced so as to ensures that accounts of a business shall be correctly
maintained and the possibility of occurrence of frauds and errors
eliminated. On the other hand, internal audit is a through examination of
the accounting transactions as well as that of the system according to
107
which these have been recorded, with a view to reassuring the
management that the accounts are properly maintained and the system
contains adequate safeguards to check any leakage of revenue or
misappropriation of property or assets and the operations have been
carried out in conformity with the plans of the managements. However,
the routine process by which an internal audit is carried out in broadly the
same as those followed for professional audit. But internal audit often
differs in its scope and emphasis: it is more managerial and accounting;
also its form is varied, depending on the size of the organization. For
instance, whereas a professional auditor is primarily concerned with the
legality or validity of transactions entered into by a business an internal
auditor in addition is expected to ensure that the standards of economy
and efficiency are being maintained. On that accounts, the internal auditor
must ascertain that orders for the purchase of stock are placed only after
inviting tenders, sales are affected at the highest ruling rates, standard
procedures as regards requirement of staff are followed, losses in
manufacturing process suffered during the period under review are not
higher than those in the earlier periods and so on. He must further confirm
that there has been no leakage of stocks or of any other assets,
reconciling the physical balance. The nature and extent of checking, that
he should carry out, also would depend on the size and type of the
business organization.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ESTABLISHING INTERNAL AUDIT
The basic principal of establishing internal audit in a business concern
are1. Independence : the internal audit department should have an
independent status in
the organization. He may be required to report directly to the
board of directors.
2. Objectives: the objectives of the internal audit function should be
made very clear and unambiguous. The objectives should be
properly communicated so that internal audit is not viewed as
“over-the-shoulder check” by other departments.
3. Clarity in Scope: the scope pf internal audit department must be
specified in a comprehensive manner. The department must at all
times, have authority to investigated from the financial angle,
every phase of organizational activity under any circumstances.
108
4. Definition of Duties: The internal audit Department’s duty is to
review operations as part of the internal control system. It should
not be involved in performance of executive actions.
5. Internal Audit Department: The size and qualification of staff of the
internal audit department should be commensurate with the size of
the business. The cost of internal audit department should not
exceed the benefits expected to be derived from it.
6. Reporting: The Programme of internal audit should be time-bound.
There should be provisions for periodic reporting on various
operational and other aspects.
7. Follow Up and Review: There should be sufficient scope for the
follow up actions on the various points raised in internal audit
report. Top management should take active part in ensuring
compliance with actions points raised in the report.
8. Relationship with statutory auditor: The copy of the internal audit
report should be made available to the statutory Auditor, who can
deal with the same in the manner as he deems fit.
OBJECTIVES
(1) To verify the accuracy and authenticity of the financial accounting and
statistical records presented to the management.
(2) To ascertain that the standard accounting practices, as have been
decided to be followed by the organization, are being adhered to.
(3) To establish that there is a proper authority for every acquisition,
retirement and disposal of assets.
(4) To confirm that liabilities have been incurred only for the legitimate
activities of the organization.
.(5) To analyse and improve the system of internal check; in particular to
see (1) that it is working;(2) that it is sound; and (3) that it is
economical.
(6) To facilitate the prevention and detection of frauds.
(7) To examine the protection afforded to assets and the uses to which
they are put.
109
(8) To make special investigation for management.
(9) To provide a channel whereby new ideas can be brought to the
attention of management.
(10) To review the operation of the overall internal control system and to
bring material departures and non-compliances to the notice of the
appropriate level of management; the review also generally aims at
locating unnecessary and weak controls for making the entire control
system effective and economical.
As per SAP-7 The scope and objectives of internal audit vary widely and
are dependent upon the size and structure of the entity and the
requirements of its managements.
Normally, however, internal audit operates in one or more of the following
areas:
(a) Review of accounting system and relating internal controls: the
establishment of an adequate accounting system and related controls
is the responsibility of managements which demands proper attention
on a continuous basis. The internal audit function is often assigned
specific responsibility by management for reviewing the accounting
system and related internal controls, monitoring their operation and
recommending improvements thereto.
(b) Examination for management of financial and operating information:
This may include review of the means used to identify, measures,
classify and report such information and specific inquiry into
individual items including detailed testing of transaction, balances
and procedures.
(c) Examination of the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of
operations including non-financial controls of an organization:
Generally, the external auditor is interested in the results of such
audit work only when it has an important reliability of the financial
records.
(d) Physical examination and verification: The would generally include
examination and verification of physical existence and condition of
the tangible assets of the entity.
110
EVALUATION OF INTERNAL AUDIT BY STATUTORY AUDITOR
USEFULNESS OF INTERNAL AUDIT
INTERNAL AUDIT V/S EXTERNAL AUDIT
(1) The role of internal audit function within an entity is determined by
management and its prime objective differs from that of the external
auditor who is appointed to report independently on financial information.
Nevertheless, some of the means of achieving their respective objectives
are often similar and, thus , much of the work of the internal auditor may
be useful to the external auditor in determining the nature, timing and
extent of his procedures.
(2) The external auditor should, as part of his audit, evaluate the internal
audit function to the extent considers that it will be relevant in determining
in nature, timing and extent of his compliance and substantive
procedures. Depending upon such evaluate, the external auditor may be
adopt less extensive procedure than would otherwise be required.
(3) By its very nature, the internal audit function cannot be expected to
have the some degree of independence as is essential when the external
auditor expresses his opinion on the financial information. The report of
the external auditor is his sole responsibility, and that responsibility is not
by any means reduced because of the reliance he place’s on the internal
work.
111
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN:
INTERNAL CHECK INTERNAL AUDIT
(1) Internal check is not a specific
check, but the duties of different
persons are so arranged that a
person’s work is automatically
checked by another person while
carrying out the normal duty.
(1) Internal audit is specifically
done to check that the accounts
are properly maintained and the
systems are in control.
(2) Internal check does the
preventive job i.e. internal check is
derived so that frauds and errors
are prevented.
(2) Internal audit does the detective
job of identifying frauds and errors
and rectifying them.
(3) It is more of process in a day to
day functioning of the business.
(3) It is specific defined job.
(4) All the persons in the
organization are involved to
maintain the internal check system.
(4) Specific persons are appointed
to the internal audit.
112
6
VOUCHING
STRUCTURE :
6.0 Objetive
6.1 Vouching
6.2 Importance of vouching
6.3 Test Checking
6.4 Test Checking / Auditing in depth
6.5 Exercises
6.6 Audit Of Expenditure Purchase
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit the students will be able to
• Understand the meaning of Vouching
• Know the objectives of Vouching
• Explain the importance of Vouching
• Know how to audit the various items of income and expenditures
6.1 VOUCHING
Meaning: Vouching means the examination of documentary
evidence in support of entries to establish the arithmetic accuracy. When
the auditor checks the entries with some documents it is called vouching.
Vouching is the acid test of audit. It tests the truth of the transaction
recorded in the books of accounts. It is an act of examining documentary
evidence in order to ascertain the accuracy and authenticity of the entries
in the books of accounts.
113
According to Dicksee "Vouching consists of comparing entries in
the books of accounts with documentary evidence In support thereof."
According to Joseph Lancaster "it is often thought that vouching
consists of the mere examination of the vouchers or documentary
evidence with the book entries. This is, however, quite wrong, for
vouching comprises such an examination of the ledger entries as will
satisfy the auditor, not only that the entry is supported by the
documentary evidence but it has been properly made upon the books of
accounts."
From the above it becomes clear that vouching means testing the
truth of entries appearing in the primary books of accounts. In short,
vouching means to examine the evidence in support of any transaction or
entry recorded in the books of accounts. Vouching does not merely see
that the entries and transactions are supported by proper documentary
evidence. The auditor should be satisfied that they are properly
maintained, they are supported by all evidence and they are correctly
recorded in the books of accounts.
Voucher
Any documentary evidence supporting the entries in the records is
termed as a voucher. Any document, which supports the entries in the
books of accounts and establishes the arithmetical accuracy, is called a
voucher.
Examples of vouchers:
A bill, a receipt, an invoice, goods received note, salaries and
wages sheets, goods inward and outward register, stores records,
counterfoil of a cheque book, counterfoil of pay-in-slip book, bank
statement, bank pass book, delivery challans, agreements, a material
requisition slip, copy of purchase order, minute book, rnemorandum and
articles of association, partnership deed, trust deed, prospectus etc. are
the examples of vouchers.
114
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF VOUCHING
• Ensures genuineness of the transactions
• Enables to know transactions
• Helps to know relevance of the transaction
• Facilitates proper allocation of capital & revenue, expenditure
• Detects frauds and errors
• Decides authenticity of transactions
• Ensures proper accounting
• Compliance with law
• Ensures proper disclosure
The special considerations to be borne in mind by the auditor in the
course of vouching.
1. Date of the voucher
2. The name of the party
3. Tick and audit rubber stamp
4. Authorisation by the authorised person
5. Revenue stamp of Re. 1 if it exceeds Rs.5000/-
6. Transaction relates to business
7. Revenue and capital
8. Amounts in words and figure
9. Account head
10. No assistance of member of clients staff to be taken for checking
receipts
11. Not to accept receipted invoice
12. Missing vouchers
115
13. Important documents
14. Vouching of cash transaction
15. Proper filing
16. Signature of payee
17. Nature of payment
18. Noting in the audit note book
19. Alteration
20. Voucher control number
Objectives of vouching
The basic objectives of vouching are as under:
1. To ensure that all the transactions are properly recorded in the books
of accounts.
2. To see the proper evidence supports all the entries of the
transactions.
3 To make it sure that fraudulent transactions are not recorded in the
books of accounts.
4 To see that all transactions relating to business are recorded in the
books of accounts.
5. To see that all transactions are properly authenticated by a
responsible person.
Auditing Techniques
1. To an auditor, auditing techniques are the working tools used and
applied for identification and examination of those evidences which
have been traced by audit procedures.
2 Distinction: The dictionary meaning of the word 'technique' is the
'method of performance or execution' and that of 'procedure' is
116
'method of conducting an affair' or 'course of action taken or an act
performed'. In other words, we can state that an all-inclusive list of
techniques can be outlined (even with an addition of new or improved
method or technique), whereas an all-inclusive list of procedures is
difficult to be prepared as these are keyed to the objectives to which
they relate. Techniques are more or less rigid and limited, but
procedures can be many and varied depending on objective
considerations for the acts to be performed or actions to be taken. On
the same analogy, we can draw distinctions between auditing
procedures and auditing techniques as follows:
• An all-inclusive list of audit procedures cannot be prepared as
these are addressed to the varying audit objectives; but such list
can be outlined for audit techniques.
• Auditing procedures are ways of applying (auditing) techniques
to particular phases of a particular audit.
• The procedures (of audit) adopted in different engagements
result from the judicious application of the available techniques
(of audit).
• Audit procedure, in fact, is concerned with the general assertions
like: existence or occurrence, rights and obligations,
completeness, valuation or allocation, and presentation and
disclosure that may be made regarding an account; whereas
audit techniques are concerned with the examination of those
evidences which have been traced as such by audit procedures.
Principal Procedures of Auditing: An all-inclusive list of audit
procedures is difficult to prepare. Judgment, with a tempering of
experience, remains the basis for the determination of the type and extent
of audit procedures. However, the following may be cited as the principal
audit procedures:
117
1. Reviewing, testing and evaluating the internal accounting controls
relating to inventories, purchases, payroll, sales invoice preparation,
stock valuation, depreciation accounting and analysis, routing of
invoices, etc.
2. Inspecting, counting and calculating the different assets relating to
cash, stocks, investment, plant and equipment, furniture; and
determining that the inventory is calculated properly at the lower of
cost or market price in accordance with generally accepted
accounting principles consistently applied; and obtaining confirmation
in regard to the validity of debtors and creditors balances, etc.
3. Obtaining the proof of accuracy - A copy of final inventory listing can
be obtained and its clerical accuracy checked and tested; obtaining
the earnings records of employees and checking the same for
accuracy with the original copies of appointment-cum-increment
letters; Similarly, appropriation of profit and the board's resolutions.
4. Reconciling, comparing and confirming - Sales invoices may be
reconciled with the total charges to customers. The reconciliation
between the cost account records and the books of financial
accounts is an illustration. The Bank reconciliation statement
provides a good measure of confirmation. The fact that the inventory
belongs to the client and that any lien on the inventory is disclosed
properly can be compared and confirmed from the minutes of the
board of directors for indications of pledges or assignments.
5. Observation and inquiry about any excess, slow-moving, obsolete, or
unassailable inventory.
6. Accounting of all pre-numbered inventories tags before and after the
physical stock-taking.
6. Verification as to the evidences relating to the ownership of assets
and existence of assets and liabilities, as a part of auditing
practices and procedures, is the principal duty of the auditor
before he certifies that the assets and liabilities that appear in the
balance sheet exhibit 'true and fair view' of the state of affairs of
the business.
118
7.
6.3 TEST CHECKING
Meaning.
Carrying out detailed check of each and every transaction of a
large business shall be time consuming for the auditor. In auditing the
accounts of a business, every single copy is not usually checked by the
auditor; what is usually done in practice is that a representative number of
entries of each class are selected and checked and if they are found
correct, the remaining entries are taken to be correct. This is known as
Test Checking. In those organizations, where satisfactory internal check
system is in existence, the auditor need not carry out detailed checking.
He may adopt Test checking. It is a system of sampling employed by the
auditor for the purpose of reducing the volume of detail checking involved
in the audit. If, in Test Checking, he finds that the records checked by him
are correct then no further detail checking need be carried out.
Test Checking v/s Statistical Sampling
Selection of items for the purpose of checking can be done in two
ways: (i) Judgment (ii) Statistical Sampling.
When the judgment method is applied, the method of checking is
called test checking. When sampling techniques are applied it is called
statistical sampling.
Precautions To Be Taken - While adopting the test check, the auditor
must take the following precautions:
1. Entries selected for test checking must be representative of all
transactions.
2. The selection of the items should be at random.
119
3. It cannot be adopted in case of vouching the cash book.
4. Client's staff should not come to know of the entries selected for test
checking.
5. Period selected for test checking should differ from book to book and
year to year.
6. He should not adopt test checking where the law requires thorough
audit.
7. A number of entries of the first and last month of the year must be
checked thoroughly.
8. Test should be so devised that a sizeable portion of the work done by
each employee is checked.
9 Control accounts or impersonal ledger should not be subject to test
checking.
10. Auditor should select the test independently without regard to the
suggestions of the member of the client's staff.
11. Bank statement and entries for cash withdrawal and cash deposits
should be checked in full.
The extent of the test checking will depend upon the judgment and
wishes of the auditor but it must be remembered that time unnecessarily
spent in routine checking is a waste of resources. Caution must also be
taken to see that the test checking may not become insignificant in extent
or automatic and unrepresentative. Test checking will be of no use unless
the representative items selected for checking are chosen with great
intelligence and imagination.
120
Advantages of Test Check
1. Volume of work is considerably reduced.
2 There is a saving in terms of time, cost and energy
3 The extra time available can be utilised for concentrating on areas of
considerable importance,
4 If done carefully, test checking can be quite effective.
Disadvantages of Test Check
1. The auditor always is under fear whether he has missed out certain
important items or that errors have remained undetected while test
checking.
2. Where the client's staff is aware that the auditor resorts to test
checking, the staff may become careless.
Auditor's Liability :
If any errors are found in the accounts the auditor cannot take the
shield against the fact that he conducted test check. The auditor should
very carefully select the items for test check and ensure on the whole that
the accounts show a true and fair view of the Profit/Loss in the case of the
Profit & Loss Account and of the state of affairs of the organisation in the
case of Balance Sheet.
SURPRISE CHECKS
To avoid audit procedures from becoming routine, mechanical and
predictable, surprise checks are desirable. Surprise checks involve visits
by auditor to the client's office/factory without prior intimation. The
element of surprise is in respect of both time and scope. Items checked
121
during such surprise checks are selected without prior notice to the
client's staff.
Such checks are very effective in case of verification of cash,
stock, investments, verification of books of prime entry. It helps in
ascertaining whether the system of internal control is operating efficiently
and thus prevent and detect errors and frauds in accounts.
USE OF TICKS
Ticks are used to keep a control on the work done by the auditor
Use of ticks should be done with great care while conducting an
audit. Firstly the colour of the tick should be determined so that it is
unique and will not be confused with that of the client's staff or internal
auditors. Secondly the types of ticks to be used should be selected. The
ticks should be placed at the right places so that the matter remains
legible and the records do not become shabby.
Care should be taken to see, that the use of different ticks does
not become known to the clients staff.
6.4 AUDITING IN DEPTH
Taylor and Perry have defined Auditing in Depth as : “the
examination of the system applied within a business entailing the tracing
of certain transactions from their origin to their conclusion, investigating at
each stage the records created and their authorization”.
Audit in depth does not mean 100% checking. It is a detailed
examination of the selected transactions from the beginning to the end.
Thus, it is used along with test checking. For example, if the auditor has
decided to check 25% of purchase transactions, these transactions
should be checked in depth. Auditor should check the Purchase
Requisition, Tenders, Purchase Orders, Purchase Bills, Goods Received
Note, Inspection Note, Purchase Journal, Stock Register, Bin Card and so
122
on. Thus, the auditor should check the purchase transaction right from the
beginning to the end. This enables him to evaluate the accounting system
and internal controls.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What do you mean by Audit Procedures ? Describe in brief different
types of Audit Procedures.
2. Distinguish between Audit Procedures and Audit Techniques.
Describe briefly different audit techniques.
3. What are the general steps and procedures followed by an auditor
while conducting audit?
4. Write short notes on (a) Test check (b) Auditing in Depth (c) Surprise
Checks (d) Use of Ticks in Auditing.
5. In audit what do you mean by Test Check' method of checking? What
Precautions should be taken by the auditor so that standard of audit
can be maintained by checking selected items of similar nature?
6.5 AUDIT OF INCOME
Cash sales
1. The cash sales register should be fully checked with the carbon
copies of the cash sales bill. Particular attention should be given
to first and last month of accounting year.
2. A summary of daily cash should be checked.
3. The auditor should be more careful where cash memos are
issued even where cash is not received.
4. A certain representative item should be subjected to vouching in
depth to get an idea about reliability of internal control.
5. Salesman’s summary, gatekeeper’s summary and cashier
summary should also be compared.
6. Dates of cash sales bills and the date on which the receipt are
recorded in the cash book must be the same. If the dates differ,
the same should be inquired into.
123
7. Where cash sales bills are cancelled, all the copies, including
original copy dully cancelled, should be kept in record.
8. Where it is a policy of the company to allow a discount, it should
be seen that uniform policy is followed.
9. If the sales are made by the salesman, their statements should
be verified and reconciliation should be made with the record of
cash received.
10. Verify the entries in the cash book and the corresponding effect
in sales A/c in the ledger.
Sales on approval
Document to
be seen Aspect to be verified / Auditor’s duties
Sale or return
day book
• Examine the sale or return day book for
the manner of accounting.
• Check actual movement of goods from
dispatch register/ goods outward book.
• Note the period of approval in the case of
different goods/ customers.
• Verify whether goods returned have been
properly reversed in the day book.
Order book or
confirmation
book
Examine this register to verify sale confirmed by
customers and goods held by customers at their
end as sale or return stock.
Sales register Ensure that sales have been recognised
whenever- (a) approval is received from the
party: or (b) goods are appropriated by the party;
or (c) period of approval has expired and goods
have not been returned.
Stock registers
and
statements
• Ensure that closing stock includes goods
lying with customers in respect of which
period of approval has not expired.
• Ensure that goods validly returned by
customers are duly accounted in stock.
Consignment sales
Document to
be seen
Aspect to be verified/ Auditor’s duties
Consignment
agreement
Ascertain and note the following terms and
conditions-
• Commission due- manner of payment,
adjustment, etc.
• Risk of bad debts- in case of del—credere
commission, consignee has to bear the
risk of bad debts; else bad debts are
borne by the consignor.
• Reimbursement of consignment
expenses- eligible expenses, extent of
124
reimbursement.
Goods
outward book
Verify goods despatched by reference to the
proforma invoice, consignment day book, goods
outward book, transport documents,
acknowledgement of the goods by the consignee
and the account sales.
Stock registers • Ensure that the stock lying with consignee
at the year end is be taken in the balance
sheet at cost on a consistent basis and
credited to the consignment a/c to arrive
at the result of consignment transactions.
• Ensure that no profit is taken for the profit
on goods remaining in the hands of the
consignee.
Account sales • Verify whether consignment sales are
accounted by crediting consignment
account and debiting the consignee’s
account.
• See whether the summery of transactions
reported i.e. sales made, expenses
incurred, commission due, remittance
made, balance stock, and amount due
from / to either party is properly disclosed
in the general ledger.
Form F For goods sold through agents In the course of
inter-state trade or commerce, verify whether
form F has been obtained under the CST Act.
Consignment
account
• When the goods are consignment above
cost, ensure that necessary adjustments
to remove the loading are made at the end
of the year.
• Verify whether necessary adjustments are
made at the year – end in respect off
unsold goods, commission and expenses
incurred by the consignee.
Confirmation Obtain confirmation of the account balance from
the consignee.
Sales return
1. Check the total of Sales Return Journal and find the amount
recorded in profit and loss account.
2. Check every item of sale return with the credit notes sent to
customer.
3. Check the entry in gate-keeper record for return inward
movement of goods and check the internal control. Verify the
entry in stock register.
4. Compare the extent of earlier year sales and return with that of
the current year.
125
5. The sales return in the beginning of the year and of the end of
the year should be carefully scrutinized.
6. Enquiry should be made if there is a wide gap between the
original transaction and the return of goods
7. If the goods are return for unacceptable quality, enquiry about
the steps taken after the return of the goods and verify the
documentation.
Recovery of bad debts written off
1. Ascertain from the trail balance, the amount under
consideration, and it should be taken to Profit and Loss Account.
2. Check the journey entry passed for the same and its
authorization.
3. If the amount is received from a party under liquidation through
his liquidator/ official receiver, check the letter from the person
and check the amount which is received along with the year in
which the original depth written off.
4. Trace the amount in the bank statement.
5. Check the correspondence with the party and with the official
receiver/ liquidator.
Rental receipts
1. Check the nature of the agreement of know the condition on
which an asset is given on the rent
2. From the original documents, check the rates, periods, mode of
payment i.e. cash or cheque.
3. Check the outstanding rent for last year and find out which of
the receipts are for last year and how much rest still
outstanding.
4. Check the entries in the cash with pay in slips and the receipts
issued.
5. Check the outstanding rent at the end of the year and see that
provision has been made for the same. Next year’s record may
be verified to find the receipt of the same.
Interest and dividend received
1. First check the income stated in the current year’s profit and
loss account.
2. Ascertain the amount received on account of last year and find
the outstanding balance receivable.
3. From cash book vouch the entries for income received.
4. Check the Tax Deducted at Source (T.D.S.) calculation and
verify the effect given in the ledger.
5. Compare the income received in total with that of the last year
and enquire about any significant variation.
6. Get a list of investments and check whether the income on all
the securities and investments has been received. If any
securities are pledged with bank, get a certificate from bank.
126
7. Ascertain the income for the year, still to be received and check
whether provision has been made for the same.
8. In case of interest received check the calculations.
9. For interest from bank, verify the entry in the bank statement.
For fixed deposits, check whether any F.D has matured or any
F.D. newly kept.
Royalties received
The auditor should see the relevant contract and examine the
important provisions relating to the conditions of payment of royality. In
particular, the rare of royality, mode of calculation and the due dates
should be noted. The periodical statement received from the publisher
and the calculation of the royality should be checked. If there is any
deduction on account of recoupment of royality for the past period, the
records for earlier royality receipts should be seen to ensure that the
amount of deduction is as per the contract. Royalties due but not yet
received should have been properly accounted for.
6.6 AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE PURCHASE
PURCHASE RETURN
Purchases Returns
H a part or whole of a consignment of goods found to be defective or of a
poor quality, the goods sometime are returned to the supplier and his
account is debited. The debit is raised in the Purchase Returns Books, on
the basis of Debit Note. The supplier, on receiving the Debit Note, issues
Credit Note indicating his acceptance of the debit. Thus on receipt it is
attached to Debit Note. All these entries should be verified by reference to
the record kept in the Goods Outwards Book or the Stores Record. The
original invoices through which the purchases were made also should be
referred to for confirming that the nominal account, which was originally
debited on the purchases being made, has been subsequently credited
on a part or whole of the goods contained in the consignment f having
been returned. Where the purchase returns are large, either at the
beginning or ': at the close of the year, these might be fictitious, entered
to cover bogus purchases recorded earlier. On such a consideration the
nature thereof should be ascertained. The rebate in price and allowances
granted by the suppliers should be adjusted through the journal on the
basis Credit Notes received from the suppliers. These should be verified
by reference to the original invoices."?
127
SALARIES & WAGES
Salaries and Wages
Payments on account of salaries and wages need to be vouched
carefully, since amounts which were either not due or in excess of those
due may have been paid by the client. The evidence in support of such
payments generally is internal. It can, therefore, be relied upon only if it
has been produced in the normal course of business and there exists an
efficient system of internal control which could be expected to prevent if
from being fabricated.
Therefore, before proceeding to verify payment made on account of
salaries and wages, the auditor should examine the internal control
procedure as regards the following :
(a) Appointment, promotion, transfer and discharge of employees.
(b) Recording attendance of workers engaged on the time basis, as well
as particulars of jobs performed by piece workers.
(p) Arrangement for the preparation of wages and salaries bills and their
analysis.
(d) Sanctioning the disbursement of wages and salaries.
(e) Arrangement for disbursement of wages and salaries for workers and
employees not present on the pay day.
(/) Custody of the wages records.
He should also verify that the system of internal control provides for
the following matters :
(a) Mechanical recording of attendance of workmen by time recording
clocks installed at the factory gate, as well as in each department
and the reconciliation of the total labour force with the total of
workmen in different departments; also the recording of attendance
of the staff departmental!}' in separate registers.
(£>) Preparation of wages and salary bills by members of the staff, who
are not connected with maintaining a record of engagement of
workers, recording of their attendance or fixation of their wages.
(c) Rotation of duties of different clerks employed for preparation of
wages and salaries bills so that calculations, additions and
extensions are not carried out by the same clerk every month. Also,
signing of the statement by persons who have prepared them and
128
indication by each person so employed of the nature of work
carried out by him.
(d) Verification of salaries and wages bills in case of newly appointed
persons by reference to orders for appointment, promotions or
transfer made during each month and of those payable to old
employees by reference to old records and on reference to the
record of attendance.
(e) Verification of the amount of total wages paid with the amount
adjusted in costing record.
(/) Checking and authorising the overtime and piece work payment
by officers who not associated with the Wages Department.
(g) Withdrawal by a single cheque from the bank of the exact
amount of wages and salaries payable as are entered in the
wages and salaries bill, depositing in the bank the undisbursed
amounts.
(h) Recording of unclaimed wages and salaries immediately in the Unpaid
Wages and Salaries Register, and their subsequent payment on the
employee's claim to them.
(z) Payment of advances in lieu of wages and salaries to persons who go
on leave on short notice before the end of the month through the
Petty Cash.
(/) Disbursement of wages in the presence of an official who is in a
position to identify the worker and ensure that wages are not being
paid to persons other than the workmen except under a proper
authority.
129
RENT
Document to be Aspect to be verified / Auditor's Duties
Rental Agreement Examine the Rent Agreement and note aspects like - (a) period of lease;
(b) rer^ payable; (c) manner of payment; (d) amenities and other charges
Payment Vouchers
• Verify the Payment Vouchers and check whether the payments have
been made. per the terms of the agreement.
• Trace the payment entries into the Bank Statement.
See whether proper receipts have been obtained from the owner of the
property.
TDS File • In case of rent payments exceeding Rs. 1, 20,000 per annum, see
whether tax has! been deducted at source at the appropriate rates, and
remitted to the authorities.
General Ledger /
Financial
Statements
* Ensure that any payment in the nature of Deposit / Additional Deposit
has not been1
Wrongly charged to revenue.
• Where the Deposit given to the Landlord bears any interest, see
whether Interne^ Income has been recognised in the P & L Account.
• Scrutinise the Ledger and see whether proper accounting entries have
b d i t f P id R t t th b i i f th /
130
INSURANCE PREMIUM
Document to be Aspect to be verified / Auditor's Duties
Internal Control
Manual
• Obtain a complete list of Telephone Connections in the name of the
Company and examine the nature of connections i.e. landline, mobile phones,
WLL etc. • Examine the Internal Control System over the use of telephone by
staff, particularly in respect of STD / ISD Calls.
Bills and
Statements of
Account
• Obtain the Telephone / Mobile Phone Bills for the period and verify if the
bills are addressed in the name of the Company. • Note that the Telephone
Bills relate to the period under audit. • Scrutinize the Nominal Ledger to
check whether the bills for all the 12 months have been properly taken into
account.
Deposit Receipts Verify whether any deposit has been paid to the Telephones Department /
Company and see if the same has been properly accounted in the books of
B h R
In case of telephone expenditure of branch, cheok the same with respect to
supporting documents and returns and see if the same has been accounted
Payment Vouchers • Trace the payments into the Bank Statement and examine whether
there is any abnormal time lag between the due date of bill, date of payment
and date of debit of cheque in Bank Pass Book. • Check if any adjustments
have to be made against the amount of the bill in respect of credits of previous
bills remaining with the Telephone Department / Company. » Examine if the
cost of any new telephone instrument purchased has also been included
in Telephone Expense Account.
Personal Expense
Element
Note that personal Telephone Expenses of the Directors, Partners etc.
have not been debited to the Profit and Loss Account, except in cases
where the expenditure is attributable to business purposes.
Document to be
seen
Aspect to be verified / Auditor's Duties
Insurance
Policy / Cover
Note
• Examine the insurance policy;/ cover note and note aspects
like – (a) asset covered by the policy; (b) amount of
premium; (c) time period of insurance, etc.
• See whether “No Claim Bonus”, whether applicable, has
granted in the policy to the insured..
Payment
vouchers • Verify the payment vouchers and trade the payment entries
into the blank statement. Compare the same with receipt
issued by the insurance company.
• Examine cases of insurance premium payments where
insurance policy is taken out by arrangement with the bank
e.g. in case of machineries and other assets obtained by
way of bank loan.
Staff insurance
policy records
• where insurance premium relates to staff, examine whether the
same has been properly recovered monthly / periodically from their
pay bills.
General ledger /
financial
statements
• scrutinize the ledger and see whether proper accounting entries
have been passed in respect of prepaid insurance as at the
beginning of the year / unexpired insurance premium at the end of
the year etc.
131
Staff Recovery
Register
In case Mobile Phone Charges paid by the Company on behalf of their
staff, see whether recoveries have been made from such employees for
amounts in excess of the permissible limits.
Service Tax
Returns
See whether Service Tax Input Credit has been availed by the Company on
the basis of the Telephone Bills / Connections in the name of the Company.
FBI Returns See whether the liability in respect of Fringe Benefit Tax on Telephone
Expenses has been properly computed and remitted to the authorities.
General Ledger /
Financial
Statements
• Verify whether year-end adjustments have been properly accounted in
respect of Outstanding Telephone Expenses. • Compute the percentage of
Telephone Expenditure to Total Turnover and compare ' the same with that of
previous year to ensure reasonableness.
PETTY CASH EXPENSES
1. Identify the persons who handle Petty Cash.
2. Verify the ceiling limit of disbursement through Petty Cash.
3. Note the limit of Imp rest System.
4. See whether petty cash payments are regularly checked by a
responsible official.
5. Examine Reconciliation Statements prepared regularly for Petty
Cash, based on vouchers.
6. Verify the Cashbook for the transfer of Cash under Imp rest system
to Petty Cash.
Document to be Aspect to be verified / Auditor's Duties
Internal Controls • Examine the Internal Control in respect of Petty Cash Payments,
and note tig authorization procedure in respect of Postage and
Courier Expenditure /Uou|9 Postage Stamps / Prepaid Post Covers,
etc.
Petty Cash Book • Examine the Petty Cash Book and test-check the entries relating to Postage
C i E dit f f th Despatch Register Cross-check a few cases of Postage / Courier Expenses with the
Despatch Register™ Outward Mail Register, to see whether any mail
h b t th t d Acknowledgements ff-sSa
Where Postage Expenses are recorded in respect of Registered Post
/ S d t "A k l d t D " i f h th Agreement with
Courier Company
• Where1 agreements are entered into" with a Courier Company /
Agency settlement of bills on a monthly basis, see whether the
internal control procedure^ for authorizing payments (at the monthend) is operating effectively.
. See whether TDS has been deducted at source and remitted
General Ledger /
Financial
Statements
• Verify whether year-end adjustments have been properly
accounted in respect of Postage Stamps in Hand.
• Compute the percentage of Postage Expenditure to Total Turnover
and compare tell same with that of previous year to ensure
132
7. Scrutinise the Petty Cash Vouchers along with Invoices, Bills,
Receipts signed by the recipients.
8. Trace the postage expenses along with entries in Mail Outward
Register. Compare with previous periods and obtain satisfactory
explanations for abnormal movements.
9. Check the castings of columns, totals and main totals.
10. Trace the postings from the Petty Cash Book into the Nominal
Ledger Head of Account.
11. Verify the petty cash physically available on a certain date, by way
of surprise check.
12. Examine the Suspense Vouchers / lOU's and ensure that they are
reversed within a reasonable time.
13. Conduct a Surprise Check of Petty Cash balance and compare
the same with the Petty Cash Book.
TRAVELLING COMMISSION ADVERTISEMENT
Demanded for all items of expenses incurred, except those which are
capable of independent verification. As regards traveling expenses
claimed by directors the auditor should satisfy himself that these were
incurred by them in the interest of the business and that the directors
were entitled to receive the amount from the business.
The voucher for travelling expenses should normally contain the
undermentioned information:
(0 Name and designation of the person claiming the
amount. (it) Particulars of the journey. (Hi) Amount of
railway or air fare.
(iv) Amount of boarding or lodging expenses or daily allowance along
with the dates and times of arrival and departure from each station.
(v) Other expenses claimed, e.g., porter age, tips, conveyance, etc.
If the journey was undertaken by air, the counterfoil of the air ticket
should be attached to the voucher; this should be inspected. For travel by
rail or road, the amount of the fare claimed should be checked from some
independent source. Particulars of boarding and lodging expenses and in
the case of halting allowance the rates thereof should be verified. The
evidence in regard to sundry expenses claimed is generally not attached
to T.A. bills. So long as the amount appears to be reasonable it is usually
not questioned. All vouchers for travelling expenses should be authorised
by some responsible official. In the case of foreign travel or any
133
extraordinary travel, the expenses, before being paid, should be
sanctioned by the Board.
Unless the articles specifically provide or their payment has been
authorised by a resolution of shareholders, directors are not entitled to
charge travelling expenses for attending Board Meetings.
134
7
VERIFICATION AND VALUATION
OF ASSETS AND LIABILITIES
STRUCTURE :
7.0 Meaning of verification
7.1 Points to be considered
7.2 Scope of verification
7.3 Object of verification
7.4 Advantages of verification
7.5 Techniques of verification
7.6 Verification of assets
7.7 Valuation of assets
7.9 Verification of assets – Illustrations
7.10 An Auditor is not a valuer
7.11 Verification of Liabilities :
7.12 Difference Between vouching and verification
7.13 Stock verification
7.14 Valuation of Stock-in-trade
7.15 Verification and Valuation of goods on Consignment
7.16 Exercises
135
7.1. MEANING OF VERIFICATION :
Spicer and Pegler have defined verification as “it implies an inquiry into
the value, ownership and title, existence and possession and the
presence of any charge on the assets”. Verification is a process by which
an auditor satisfies himself about the accuracy of the assets and liabilities
appearing in the Balance Sheet by inspection of the documentary
evidence available. Verification means proving the truth, or confirmation of
the assets and liabilities appearing in the Balance Sheet.
Thus, verification includes verifying :-
1. The existence of the assets
2. Legal ownership and possession of the assets
3. Ascertaining that the asset is free from any charge, and
4. Correct valuation
Of course it is not possible for the auditor to verify each and every asset.
It was held in Kingston Cotton Mills case that “it is not part of an auditor’s
duty to take stock. No one contend that it is. He must rely on other people
for the details of stock in trade in hand”.
However, as per the decision given in Mc Kesson and Robins case (1939)
the auditor must physically inspect some of the assets. Now the auditor
has to report whether the balance sheet shows true and fair view of the
state of affairs of the company. Hence, he is required to verify all the
assets and liabilities appearing in the balance sheet. In case of failure, the
auditor can be held liable for damages.
According to the `statement of auditing practices’ issued by ICAI, “the
auditor’s object in regard to assets generally is to satisfy that :-
1. They exist.
2. They belong to the client.
3. They are in the possession of the client or the persons authorized by
him.
136
4. They are not subject to undisclosed encumbrances or lien.
5. They are stated in the balance sheet at proper amounts in
accordance with sound accounting principles, and
6. They are recorded in the accounts.
7.2 POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED :
While conducting verification following points should be
considered by the auditor :-
1. Existence : The auditor should confirm that all the assets of the
company are physically existing on the date of balance sheet.
2. Possession : The auditor has to verify that the assets are in the
possession of the company on the date of balance sheet.
3. Ownership : The auditor should confirm that the asset is legally
owned by the company.
4. Charge or lien : The auditor has to verify whether the asset is
subject to any charge or lien.
5. Record : The auditor should confirm that all the assets and liabilities
are recorded in the books of account and there is no omission of
asset or liability.
6. Audit report : Under CARO the auditor has to report whether the
manangement has conducted physical verification of fixed assets
and stock and the difference, if any, between the physical inventory
and the inventory as per the book.
7. Event after balance sheet date : The auditor should find out
whether any event after the date of balance sheet has affected any
items of assets and liabilities.
137
7. 3 SCOPE OF VERIFICATION
Verification includes information on the following :-
1. That the assets were in existence on the date of the balance sheet
2. That the assets had been acquired for the purpose of business
only
3. That the assets had been acquired under a proper authority
4. That the right of ownership of the assets vested in the organization
5. That the assets were free from any charge and
6. That the assets were properly valued and disclosed in the balance
sheet.
7. 4 OBJECTS OF VERIFICATION :
Following are the objects of verification of assets and liabilities
1. To show correct valuation of assets and liabilities.
2. To know whether the balance sheet exhibits a true and fair view of
the state of affairs of the business
3. To find out the ownership and title of the assets
4. To find out whether assets were in existence
5. To detect frauds and errors, if any
6. To find out whether there is an adequate internal control regarding
acquisition, utilisation and disposal of assets.
7. To verify the arithmetic accuracy of the accounts
8. To ensure that the assets have been recorded properly.
138
7. 5 ADVANTAGES OF VERIFICATION
Advantages of verification are as under :-
1. It avoids manipulation of accounts
2. It guards against improper use of assets
3. It ensures proper recording and valuation of assets
4. It exhibits true and fair view of the state of affairs of the company.
7.6 TECHNIQUES OF VERIFICATION :
1. Inspection : It means physical inspection of the assets i.e.
company cash in the cash box, physical inventory, inspection of
shares certificates, documents etc.
2. Observation : The auditor may observe or witness the inspection
of assets done by others.
3. Confirmation : It means obtaining written evidence from outside
parties regarding existence of assets.
7.7 VERIFICTION OF ASSETS
The term `verification’ signifies the physical examination of certain
class of assets and confirmation regarding certain transactions.
Sometimes verification is confused with vouching but they differ from
each other on the nature and depth of the examination involved. Vouching
goes to prove the arithmetical accuracy and the genuineness of the
transactions, whereas verification goes to enquire into the value,
ownership, existence and possession of assets and also to confirm
whether they are free from any mortgage or charge. The fact of the
presence of any entry regarding the acquisition of asset does not prove
that the particular asset actually exists on the Balance Sheet date, rather
it purports to prove that the asset ought to exist; on the other hand,
verification through physical examination and confirmation proves whether
a particular asset actually exists without having any charge on the date of
the balance Sheet.
139
Verification of assets involves the following steps:
1. Enquiry into the value placed on assets;
2. Examination of the ownership and title deeds of assets;
3. Physical inspection of the tangible assets; and
4. Confirmations regarding the charge on assets;
5. Ensuring that the assets are disclosed, classified and presented in
accordance with recognized accounting policies and legal
requirements.
The scope of verification is wide and consequently verification is
an important part of the auditor’s duties. An auditor should put all his
endeavor to satisfy himself whether a particular asset is shown in the
Balance Sheet at proper value, whether the concern holds the title to the
asset and the asset is in the sole possession of the concern and lastly
whether the asset is free from any charge. If the auditor fails to perform
his duty, he will be held liable. In case of London Oil Storage Co. Ltd. Vs.
Sear Hasluck & Co. (1904) Chief Justice Alverstone remarked : `It is the
duty of the auditor to verify the existence of the assets stated in the
Balance sheet and he will be liable for any damage suffered by the client
if he fails in his duty.
Besides the legal importance, verification also plays an important
role to guard against improper valuation of assets like stock-in-trade
which may inflate or deflate the profit position of the concern. Improper
valuation of assets may also conceal the actual position of the business
as reflected in the Balance Sheet.
However, it is not possible on the part of the auditor to physically
verify each and every asset because time may not permit him to do so, or
he may not have sufficient technical knowledge of the assets concerned.
It was decided in the case of “Kingston Cotton Mills: that it is not a part of
an auditor’s duty to take stock. No one contends that it is. He must rely on
other people for the details of the stock-in-trade.
Again, while going through the decision of Mc Kesson and Robins case in
1939, we find that the auditor should physically verify some of the assets.
If possible, title documents like negotiable instruments, shares,
debentures, securities, etc. are to be thoroughly examined on the last day
of the accounting period. He should satisfy himself that the transactions, if
140
any, having bearing on the Balance Sheet date and date of audit are
bonafide and are supported with proper evidence. The auditor is also
supposed to verify stock-in-trade with reference to the purchase book, the
stock records, the gatekeeper’s book, etc. though law does not specially
compel him to take stock-in-trade.
7.8 VALUATION OF ASSETS
(i) Meaning :
Valuation of assets means determining the fair value of the assets
shown in the Balance Sheet on the basis of generally accepted
accounting principles. The valuation of assets is very important because
over-statement or under-statement of the value of assets in the Balance
sheet not only distorts the true and fair view of the financial position but
also gives wrong position of profitability.
The valuation of the assets is the primary duty of the officials of the
company. The auditor is required to verify whether the value ascertained
is fair one or not. For this, he may rely on the technical certificate issued
by the experts in the field.
Valuation of assets means not only checking value of the assets
owned by an organization as on Balance Sheet date, but also critical
examination of the value of these assets
(comparative analysis of different assets).
The auditor has also to see that the principle of valuation of assets
is consistently adopted and is based on established principles of
accountancy. For the purpose of convenience, those assets are classified
as under to determine their value.
1. Fixed Assets
2. Current Assets or Floating Assets
3. Wasting Assets
4. Intangible Assets
5. Fictitious Assets.
141
1. Fixed Assets : Fixed Assets are usually valued at `going concern
value’ which means cost less depreciation. Cost here means
purchase price of the assets plus all incidental manufacturing,
buying and installation expenses incurred to bring the assets in
use. Depreciation is the provision made for the reduction in the
value of the assets on account of their usage, natural wear and
tear and obsolescence etc. The depreciation provided should be
fair, otherwise the value of fixed assets may not be fair. What is a
fixed asset depends on the nature of the business organization.
2. Current Assets or Floating Assets : These are usually
converted into cash at the earliest opportunity in the process of
business activity, e.g. stocks, bills receivables, sundry debtors,
etc. Based on conservatism principle, usually current asset are
valued at original value (cost price) or market value (realizable
value) whichever is lower. Because they are intended to be
converted into cash at the earliest possible time, hence what value
we may realize is important. This method is adopted to strengthen
the financial position of a concern by indirectly providing for
expected loss by way of fall in the market value of the assets. This
principle is held by the conservatism convention of accounting, i.e.
do not expect profits but provide for anticipated losses.
3. Wasting Assets : Wasting Assets means those which lose their
value gradually upon their use, e.g. a mine, a quarry etc. To value
these assets firstly we should determine the usefulness of the
assets in terms of units of production etc. and as per their actual
use the value is to be reduced on proportionate basis. If in a
particular period this type of asset is not used then the value may
not diminish also. Thus, these assets are to be reduced on the
basis of consumption. But sometimes it may be difficult to adopt
this method, then the `cost less depreciation’ principle may have to
be applied.
4. Intangible Assets : Usually intangible assets like goodwill, patent
rights, know how, etc. are valued on cost basis. But if the same
are acquired by a non-cash transaction, then the fair market value
is to be taken as the value of intangible assets. Auditor should also
see the period of time and till it is fully written off, they are shown
as assets because they do not have any realizable value. They
are to be valued at actual cost less amount written off as
depreciation upto Balance Sheet date.
142
5. Fictitious Assets : Certain lumpsum expenses giving benefit for
more than one year when incurred are written off over a period of
time, and till it is fully written off, it is shown as an asset in the
Balance Sheet e.g. preliminary expenses, discount on issue of
shares etc. These are all ficitious assets because they do not have
any realizable value. They are to be valued at actual cost less
amount written off upto the Balance Sheet date.
7. 8.1 Methods of Valuation
The following are the various principles of valuation of assets
(1) Cost Price (Going Concern Value ) : Under this method actual
cost of assets are reduced by the depreciation provided. Usually
this method is applied to value fixed assets.
(2) Market Value : This refers to the market value of the asset i.e. the
price at which the asset is being transacted in the market. This is
applied to value the current assets only when this is lower than
cost of the asset. Usually market value is adopted to value items
having perishable nature.
(3) Scrap Value : Assets which are useless for the enterprise may be
sold as scrap in the market. The value for which such assets can
be disposed of as scrap, is called as scrap value of assets.
(4) Replacement Value : This represents the value at which the
existing assets can be replaced. That means the price to be paid
to acquire such type of assets in the market on the date of the
balance Sheet.
(5) Realisable Value : The value that can be obtained if the asset is
sold in the market i.e. anticipated selling price. Usually, expenses
such as commission, brokerage etc. are deducted from it.
143
7.8.2 Auditor’s position regarding valuation of assets :
So far as the valuation aspect of audit is concemed, the auditor’s
position is somewhat different from the other aspects of audit. It has
already been pointed out that the auditor is not supposed to have
technical knowledge regarding the valuation of assets. Therefore, he has
to depend upon the valuation made by the directors, expererts, surveyors,
etc, to a great extent. But does it relieve him from liability if certain assets
are overvalued or undervalued by the directors, experts or surveyors etc?
The reply is definitely no, because the auditor cannot give a guarantee for
absolute correctness or the state of affairs when he has to depend upon
others, and also where assets are valued according to the estimated
depreciation. He has to see that the management tries to show the fairest
possible estimate of the position of the state of affairs of the concern.
Under these circumstances, the auditor should see that assets are valued
according to certain accepted principles of accountancy. He should check
the estimation in a reasonable manner. The auditor in any case should
thoroughly examine the available papers and documents to arrive at the
correct value of assets. In case of a little suspicion as regards the
valuation of assets he should probe into the matter.
7.8.3 Distinction between verification and valuation :
1. Meaning : verification establishes existence, ownership and
acquisition of assets whereas valuation certifies correctness of the
value of assets and liabilities.
2. Time : Verification is done at the end of the year whereas
valuation is done during the year.
3. Personnel : Verification is done by auditor whereas valuation is
done by the proprietor himself.
5. Evidence : The title deeds, receipts of payments constitute
documentary evidence for verification where as certificate given by
the proprietor is the documentary evidence for valuation.
144
7. 9 VERIFICATION OF ASSETS – ILLUSTRATION :
(i) Cash in hand and at bank :
Cash in hand includes all the following :
(a) Cash in hand :
1. Special care is necessary with regard to verification of cash balances.
There can be no certainity that the cash produced for inspection was
in fact held by the custodian.
2. For this reason, the cash should be checked not only on the last day
of the year, but also checked again sometime after the close of the
year without giving notice of the auditor’s visit either to the client or to
his staff.
3. If there is more than one figure for cash balance e.g. when there is a
cashier, a petty cashier, a branch cashier and in addition, there are
imprest balance with employees, all of them should be checked
simultaneously, as far as practicable, so that the shortage in one
balance is not made good by transfer of amount from the other.
4. It is desirable for the cashier to be present while cash is being counted
and he should be made to sign the statement prepared, containing
details and the cash balance counted. If he is absent at the time the
cash is being verified, he may subsequently refute the amount of
actual cash on hand which may put the auditor in an embarrassing
position.
5. If the auditor is unable to check balance on the date of the Balance
Sheet, he should arrange with his client for all the balance to be
banked and where this cannot conveniently be done on the eve of the
close of the financial year, it should be deposited the following
morning. The practice should also be adopted in the case of balance
at the factory, depot or branch where cash cannot be checked at close
of the year.
6. Should this not be possible, the auditor should verify the receipts and
payments of cash upto the date he counts the cash. This should be
145
done soon after the cash balances have been counted. The cash
book of the day on which the balance is verified should be signed by
the auditor to indicate the stage at which the cash balance was
checked.
7. If any cheques, or drafts are included in cash balance the total there
of should be disclosed.
8. If there is any rough Cash Book or detail of daily balance are
separately kept, the auditor should test entries from the rough Cash
Book with those in the Cash Book, to prove that, entries in the Cash
Book are correct.
9. If the auditor finds any slip, chit or I.O.U’s in respect of temporary
advances paid to the employees, included as part of the cash
balance, he should have them initialed by a responsible official and
debited to appropriate accounts.
(b) Cash in Transit (Remittance in Transit)
1. This refers to amount sent by Branch/Depots/Agents etc. to Head
Office but physical cash/cheques not yet received by H.O. or vice
versa.
2. Such remittance in transit should be verified from subsequent period
cash book/pass book as to whether actually it is received or not.
3. Reconciliation of H.O./Branch Accounts should also be checked.
4. If amount is deposited into bank, pay-in-slip can also be verified.
5. See that entry for remittance in transit is passed by only one party and
is reversed in the next year.
(c) Petty Cash
1. Petty Cash in hand should be verified with Petty Cash Book
2. Also check up the balance of Petty Cash Account in General Ledger.
146
3. Vouch the transaction of last month property to ascertain that
ficititious payments are not entered into
4. Some of the points given for verification of cash in hand will be
applicable for Petty Cash also.
(d) Bank Balance :
1. To verify cash at bank, the auditor should examine the bank pass
book and compare it with the balance as shown by the bank column of
the cash book.
2. Check bank reconciliation statement with bank statement / pass book
of subsequent period.
3. The auditor should get a certificate regarding the balance at the bank
directly from the bank.
4. Ensure that the balance as shown by the cash book is brought into the
balance sheet as `Cash and Bank’ and not `Balance as shown by the
pass book’.
5. The auditor should also see that the `cheque outstanding’ and
`cheques not yet collected’ are genuine and not made up in order to
conceal the deficiency. If some of these cheques are more than six
months old, he should make inquires, and have them reversed in the
books of accounts.
6. Cash in Fixed deposits with the bank can be verified by examining the
deposit receipt, or getting a certificate from the banker.
7. If there are more than one bank account such as `Dividend Account’.
“Interest Account’ etc. all such accounts should be checked and the
balances should be verified upon the same date. Information
regarding their balance should also be obtained from the bank
directly.
8. If the bank account shows an adverse balance and the client has
deposited any security for the overdraft, the auditor should enquire
from the bank the particulars of the security and the amount of the
interest charged.
147
(ii) Bills Receivable
1. The auditor should examine the Bills Receivable Book with the Bills
Receivable not matured but in hand on the date of the Balance
Sheet.
2. When any bills are in the process of collection the details of the same
have to be verified with bank certificates.
3. If the Bills Receivables in hand are many, auditor should make a list
of bills for his convenience.
4. If there are any bills that have been discounted, and still not matured,
he has to examine the details of the same very carefully and should
confirm with the bank because they are to be shown as contingent
liabilities by way of a note in the Balance Sheet.
5. While examining the Bills, the auditor has to pay special attention to
see that they are properly drawn, stamped and duly accepted.
6. He has to check whether any bills is overdue. If so, auditor should
ask for the details of the action initiated, etc. If there are any bills
which are doubtful of recovery, he should see whether any adequate
provision has been made for the anticipated loss on account of bad
debts.
7. He has to see that in case of dishonoured bills, the same is not
shown as Bills Receivable. the auditor has also to check up whether
noting formalities have been properly complied with or not.
8. In case the auditor has visited his client after the Balance Sheet date,
many of the bills due on the Balance sheet date might have matured
or honoured. Hence the auditor has to vouch such bills with Cash
Book or Pass Book and reconcile the balance.
9. If the bill has been renewed after the Balance Sheet date, then also
the value of the original bill due on Balance sheet date should be
shown as Bills Receivable and interest on renewed bills properly
accounted.
10. If the bills endorsed have been dishonoured, the original drawee is to
be debited and endorsee is to be credited.
148
(iii) Loans advanced
Loans may of different types like :
(a) Loans against the security of land and buildings.
(b) Loans against the security of goods
(c) Loans against the security of stocks and shares.
(d) Loans against the security of insurance policies, and
(e) Loans against the personal security of the borrower.
Therefore, in each case, the duty of auditor in general is as under :
1. Verify whether object clause of the Memorandum provides for
granting of such loans.
2. Examining whether a proper loan ledger has been maintained and it
is up-to-date or not.
3. Examination of the security lodged against each loan. The loan
agreement is to be scrutinized regarding the rate of interest. Due
dates of instalment, penally, interest, etc.
4. He should ascertain whether any loan is doubtful of recovery in which
case a provision for the expected loss is to be made.
5. Except in case of a banking or finance company, auditor has to
ascertain whether the purpose of advancing is connected with
business or not. Section 227(4A) of the Companies Act, 1956
requires an auditor to report whether the parties to whom the loans
are given are regular in payment of interest and principal and the
terms of the loan are not prima facie prejudicial to the interst of the
company.
(a) Loans against the security of Land and building
1. The auditor has to examine the mortgage deed, see if the copy has
been properly executed and registered in favour of the client.
2. The auditor has to examine the title deeds deposited with the
mortage deed.
149
3. The auditor, if required, has to examine the valuer’s certificate in
order to ascertain the value and sufficiency of the security.
4. The auditor has to confirm that the property is properly insured and
insurance premiums have been paid in time.
5. The auditor has to examine the title of the Borrower to the property,
etc.
6. If the mortgage is a second mortgage, the auditor has to confirm that
the same is brought to the knowledge of the first mortgagee. In this
case he has to take the acknowledgement of title deeds from the first
mortgagee.
(b) Loans against the security of goods.
1. The auditor has to examine the nature of the goods and confirm that
the goods are really belonging to the borrower. He should see
whether the loan is granted against railway receipt, lorry receipt, dock
warrant, godown keeper’s receipt etc.
2. In case goods are stored in the godown, he has to see that the rent of
the godown is paid in full and the goods are fully insured.
3. The auditor should examine the value of the goods by comparing
them with the present market value. Regarding quality and quantity,
he may rely on the inspector’s reports.
4. If the goods are of perishable nature, the auditor has to examine the
turnover of the stock of the client.
(c) Loans against the security of stocks and shares
1. He should call for a statement of stocks and shares given as security
and confirm that all of them are fully paid up.
2. He should see whether an instrument of transfer is properly stamped
and is properly executed.
3. He should see that their value is properly disclosed as per the
prevailing market rates.
150
4. He has to ensure that there is a sufficient margin on the loans
advanced.
5. He has to see whether the charge is properly registered or not.
(d) Loans against the security of insurance polices :
1. The auditor should see that the policy has completed at least two
years.
2. The auditor should confirm that all the premiums have been properly
paid and the policy is in force by examining the latest premium receipt.
3. The auditor should ascertain that due notice of assignment has been
given to the insurance company.
4. The auditor should see that the loan has been advanced on the basis
of surrender value of the policy as certified by the insurance company.
5. The auditor has to ensure that the premium, if any, paid up by the
lender to keep the policy in force is properly debited to the Loan
Account of the borrower together with the usual interest.
(e) Loans against the personal security of the borrower
The auditor has to examine the documents like Promissory Note,
Guarantor’s details and Salary Certificate of the borrower, etc.
(iv) Sundry Debtors :
Sundry Debtors represents the amount recoverable from the
customers for sale of goods or rendering of services.
1. The undermentioned procedure should be applied for verification
of `Book Debts’ or `Sundry Debtors’ after receiving a schedule or
list of debtors from the client.
151
(a) Direct confirmation of balances from debtors by sending
confirmatory letters.
(b) Year-end Scrutiny of ledgers.
(c) Verification of the position of debts considered bad or doubt
ful.
(d) Compliance with legal requirement or presentation.
2. The auditor should arrange to send the letter of confirmation of
balances by the client as per client’s records and see that the reply
of confirmation is forwarded to his office directly. Usually this
should be sent within 15 or 20 days of close of the year under the
supervision of the audit staff. After the reply is received, the same
should be tallied with the balances shown in the Debtors Ledger
and difference properly reconciled.
3. After the said procedure is carried out, he should carry out a
thorough scrutiny of the debtor’s individual accounts. Wherever
the number of debtors is very large, Test Checks can be applied.
4. While scrutinizing the ledger, the auditor should focus the light on
discounts, returns, cash received, rebates allowed, goods returned
etc.
5. On ascertaining the balances of the debtors as genuine and
correct, the auditor has to verify the debtors to find out bad or
doubtful debts to make a provision for the same. If the debts are
bad and irrecoverable or doubtful and they are not provided for
properly, the financial statements will not portray a `True and Fair’
view. Hence, appropriate provision is to be made by considering
the age of the debtor, scrutiny of payments received, management
opinion and any other information like financial position of debtors,
etc. If the auditor fails in verifying the appropriateness of the
provsion made, he shall be held liable for negligence.
6. After ascertaining the position of bad or doubtful debts, he should
see that the legal requirements of Schedule VI to the Companies
Act, 1956 are complied with. For this purpose, the debtors are to
be classified as :
(a) Outstanding for a period of more than six months ; and
152
(b) Other debts.
7. Over and above this, other requirements like debts considered as
good and which are fully secured, debts due from the officers,
directors, managers of the company, etc., are to be ascertained for
disclosure.
8. If the customers have purchased the goods on hire purchase
system and some of the instaiments are not due, the same is not
to be shown as `stock out on hire purchase’.
9. Likewise, if the goods are sold on `return or approval’ basis, such
customer cannot be shown as a debtor at the close of the year.
10. Further, whenever there are credit balances in some debtors
account, the same are not to be deducted from other debtors debit
balances and net balance is not to be shown in the assets side,
but former is to be shown as Sundry Creditors.
(v) Patent and Trademarks :
1. The ownership of patent rights is verified by inspection of
certificate issued for grant of patent, by the prescribed authority.
2. If it has been purchased, the agreement surrendering it in favour
of the client should be examined.
3. If there are a number of patents held by the client, obtain a
schedule giving the full details thereof or verify with reference to
the register maintained by the client.
4. It must be verified that patent rights are alive and legally
enforceable and renewal fees have been paid on due dates and
charged to Revenue Account. The last renewal receipt should be
examined to ascertain that the patent has not lapsed.
153
5. See that the patents are properly registered in the name of the
client only.
6. See that the cost of patent is being written off over its useful period
of life.
7. In case the patent is acquired, cost paid for the same and all
relevant expenses are to be capitalized.
8. If the patent is created by the client by the research experiments
and laboratory work, only the actual expenses incurred for it in the
process are to be capitalised.
(vi) Copyrights
1. The auditor has to examine the written agreement of assignment
alongwith the royalty paid to the authors etc., for such copyrights.
2. He has to see that such assignments are properly registered.
3. If the client is the owner of many copyrights, the auditor should ask
the client to prepare a schedule of copyrights and get the detailed
information to confirm that the same is shown in the Balance
Sheet.
4. Regarding the value of copyrights, it should be remembered that
this asset has no value in the long run. Hence, value is determined
on revaluation basis and period of copyrights.
5. If any copyrights does not command the sale of any books, then
the same should be written off in such year. The auditor has to
verify the same in detail.
154
(viii) Know-how :-
1. Know how is recorded in the books only if it has been paid for. If it
is developed in house, it cannot be capitalised. The auditor should
keep his in mind while verifying know-how.
2. Know-how can be of two types :
(a) Relating to manufacturing process – The auditor should
ensure that the expenditure is written off in the year of
payment itself.
(b) Relating to design, plans of plants, building etc. - The auditor
should ensure that the expenditure is capitalized and
depreciation is charged on the capitalized figure.
In case lumpsum payment is made for both types of knowhow, both the types should be segregated on a reasonable
basis.
Under the Income-Tax Act, cost of Know-how can be deducted
subject to the rules laid down.
The auditor should keep this fact in mind while computing the
tax liability for the year under audit.
(viii) Investments :
Investment may be a share certificate, government bond
certificate, government loan certificate, debenture certificate, etc. For
verification of such securities, the following procedure is adopted.
1. Obtain a schedule of investments in hand at the beginning of
the audit period. Obtain the details of description of
investments together with distinctive number of face value,
date of purchase, book value, market value, rate of interest,
date of payment of interest or, date around which dividend is
declared, etc., with also the details of interest or dividend
received along with tax deducted at source.
155
2. Add to the above list, purchase made during the year and
delete the investments sold during the year with all the above
details.
3. Balance this schedule and compare the balance with general
ledger and Balance sheet.
4. Check the market value of investments with reference to stock
exchange quotations or other suitable method, on Balance
Sheet date and see that the values are disclosed in the
Balance sheet.
5. Inspect the certificates or securities physically on the Balance
Sheet date.
6. Compare the income received with amount due and adjust the
accrued income.
7. Confirm the uncalled liability on partly paid shares held as
investment shown as contingent liability by way of a note to the
Balance Sheet.
8. See that adequate provision is made for any shortfall in the
book value of investment shown in the Balance Sheet.
9. See that, regarding the investment in subsidiaries, disclosure
requirement of section 212 of Schedule VI of the Companies
Act, 1956 are complied with.
10. For investment in the capital of partnership, the partnership
deed and copy of accounts of partnership firms, is to be
verified. Also adjust the share of profit and loss for the
partnership period.
11. Investments which stand in the name of persons other than
that of the company are to be confirmed with appropriate
sanction.
12. For investment lodged with others as security or lying with
banks or share brokers, obtain a certificate from the parties
concerned.
156
13. In case of application money paid for shares which are still to
be allotted, that fact is to be specially disclosed in the Balance
Sheet.
(ix) Leasehold Property :
Normally the lease or right to use the property is granted for
certain number of years. At the expiry of the period of lease, the rights go
back to the original lessor. Various steps involved in the verification of
leasehold rights are stated below.
1. Inspect the lease agreement to ascertain the amount of premium
paid, period of lease, other terms and conditions, like
maintenance, insurance, etc.
2. See that the lease is properly registered with the Registrar
because a lease for a period exceeding one year is not valid
unless it has been granted by a registered document.
3. Ascertain those conditions, the failure of which might result in the
forfeiture or cancellation of lease, and see whether they have been
properly complied with.
4. See whether sub-lease is valid as per lease agreement, in case if
it is granted, by referring to sub-lease agreement.
5. See that the premium paid and acquisition expenses of lease are
being amortised (written off) over the period of lease adopting a
suitable basis.
6. In case, any provision is to be made under the dilapidation clause
for payment on the expiry of the term of lease, see that the same
is properly and continuously provided.
7. In case of leasehold land, if any building is constructed by the
lessee, see the position and ascertain the correct method of
presentation of such expenditure for disclosure in the Balance
Sheet.
157
(x) Goodwill
1. Whenever the company has purchased or acquired a running
business and has paid for it an amount, in excess of the book
value of its net assets, the excess is called `Goodwill’. It can be
verified from the vendor’s agreement and the auditor has to see
whether there is a specific sum which is paid or whether it is the
excess of price paid over the tangible assets and see that it is
properly recorded.
2. When the company has written up the values of all its assets on a
revaluation and has raised a Goodwill Account in the books, the
Goodwill appears in the Balance Sheet. In this case, the auditor
has to see the basis of valuation and get satisfied about the same.
If he is not satisfied, the fact should be reported to the
shareholders.
3. He has to see that such excess is credited to a Capital Reserve or
Revaluation Reserve and no dividend is being declared from it.
4. He has also to see the disclosure requirement of Schedule VI and
ensure that the fact are disclosed for 5 years subsequent to the
date of revaluation.
5. Sometimes, Goodwill which is written off earlier may be brought
back in the books of account to adjust the debit balance of Profit
and Loss account. In this case, the auditor should investigate the
fact and satisfy in full before approving such method of creating
Goodwill. He should also refer to the board resolution. In case he
is not satisfied, the fact should be reported to the shareholders.
6. If Goodwill has been created by any other means, the auditor
should see that all relevant facts are properly disclosed and are
supported by documentary evidence.
158
(xi) Plant and Machinery :
1. Now-a-days as per provision of Section 227(4A) of the Companies
Act, 1956 every company is required to maintain a Fixed Asset
Register showing full particulars including cost, location,
depreciation, details of purchase, expenses capitalised, etc.
Therefore, the auditor should ask for such a register maintained by
the client and see that all items of plant and machinery are
recorded properly giving full details.
2. As per the provision of the same section, all fixed assets are
required to be physically verified by the management. Therefore,
the auditor should enquire whether such physical verification was
undertaken or not. If yes, he should ask for necessary papers
pertaining to the same. If there is any discrepancy, reasons for the
same should be asked.
3. Any new purchase made during the year are to be verified with
reference to purchase invoice and other papers regarding
installation of the same.
4. Total value of plant and machinery as shown by Fixed Asset
Register should tally with ledger account maintained in the
financial books.
5. Where any item of plant and machinery is sold, scrapped or
transferred the auditor should check relevant entries for the same
and verify that they are removed from the Fixed Assets Register.
6. The auditor should verify that adequate depreciation is provided
on all items of plant and machinery and method of depreciation is
consistently followed from year to year.
7. Auditor should see that the entire plant and machinery stands in
the name of the client and are free from any charge or
encumbrances. If plant and machinery is mortgaged, then he has
to verify that the documents are properly executed and mention of
mortgage is made in the Balance Sheet.
159
(xii) Furniture and Fixtures :
1. The auditor has to see that a proper record showing quantitative
details of furniture and fixtures owned by the client is maintained.
2. The auditor has to see that all expenses incidental to the purchase
of furniture and fixtures is capitalised along with the purchase price
paid for it.
3. The auditor has to enquire whether the furniture and fixtures have
been properly insured or not.
4. The auditor has to see that adequate provision for depreciation on
furniture and fixtures is made.
5. The auditor if possible can go for physical verification of furniture
on test check basis or he can rely on the management certificate
to that effect.
6. He has to further see that any damaged or unusable furniture, if
existing, is fully written off in the books.
(xiii) Freehold Property (Land & Buildings) :
1. The auditor has to examine the title deeds of the property owned
by the client and confirm that the same is freehold.
2. If the property has been purchased during the year, the auditor
has to examine the correspondence with the broker, or solicitor in
details.
160
3. When a building has been constructed on the freehold property,
the same is to be verified from builder’s bill or architect’s
certificate.
4. Where the title deeds are deposited with the mortgagee on a
mortgage, then a certificate from him to that effect is to be
obtained for verification.
5. If the title deeds are deposited with the bankers or solicitors for
safe custody, the auditor should get a certificate from them to
confirm the fact.
6. If required, the auditor should ask the solicitor of the client to
confirm the validity of the title deeds relating to the property.
7. The auditor has to see that the conveyance of the property is in
the name of the client and the same is properly registered.
8. The auditor has to ensure that the property is properly insured.
9. The auditor should see that separate account for land and building
is maintained. Because on land, usually no depreciation is
provided.
10. In case there is appreciation of land and buildings value by
revaluation, the auditor has to see the basis of revaluation and
confirm that the same is properly disclosed in the Balance Sheet,
to comply with the generally accepted accountancy principles and
also the provision of Companies Act, 1956.
(xiv) Motor Cars :
1. In respect of motor vehicles mileage or usage method is better
because the time of total mileage that the particular vehicle will
give, can be ascertained without much difficulty and the mileage in
161
a particular year can also be known, so proportionate cost of the
asset can be written off over the mileage traveled. For example, if
the total mileage of a vehicle costing Rs. 80,000 is 1,60,000 miles
and in a year suppose 15,000 miles are traveled, then the
depreciation for that vehicle would be:
15000
8000 x --------------------- = Rs. 7,500
160000
2. Where number of motor cars is large, it would be advisable if the
client maintains a motor vehicle register. Where no such register is
maintained, the balance of Motor Car account in the General
Leger should indicate the registration number and cost of each
vehicle.
3. The auditor should examine the registration book to see whether
the description agrees with the details given by the client. The
auditor should see that the person in whose favour registration is
made holds it on behalf of the client and gives a confirmation that
he holds it and there is no charge on it.
4. Many a times, vehicles are purchased by the client for the purpose
of employees who pay a certain sum of money every month from
the salaries. When all the money has been paid, the client
transfers the car in the employee’s name. The auditor should
check the relevant records for recovery made and the transfer
price.
5. Sometimes cars are owned by employers and given to employees
and cost of maintenance is borne by the client and the auditor in
these cases affirms that whenever the client owns a car, he should
provide depreciation on it.
6. Similarly, when the car is sold as scrap to the employees the
auditor should compare the written down book value with the
scrap price realized and see that the balance is charged to
revenue account.
162
(xv) Loose Tools, Patterns, Dies, etc.
Auditor’s duties with regard to the verification and valuation of
such assets may be stated as follows:
1. Since the duration of the usefulness of such assets is very low,
there is no need of maintaining separate accounts for each of
them. The auditor in this case should see whether proper
supervision has been exercised over these assets, as there is
every possibility of pilferage of such small assets.
2. The auditor should collect a list of small tools, dies, moulds, rigs,
etc. from a responsible officer and examine the same very
carefully. He should also see that such a list has been certified by
a responsible officer.
3. As regards the valuation of small tools, the auditor should see that
in the case of the concern which manufactured its own tools, the
tools are not to be valued in excess of the cost.
4. Generally, these types of assets appear to be either lost or
consumed very rapidly. So the conventional method of
depreciation should not be applied in their cases. The suggestion
as given by Montgomery in this connection may be stated.
“Charging the cost of replacement of such items to maintenance in
lieu of depreciating them is usually a satisfactory altemative”. The
auditor should see whether the above mentioned suggestion has
been accepted or not.
6. The auditor should also see whether such an asset has been
properly shown in the Balance Sheet.
163
(xvi) Assets Acquired on Hire Purchase Agreement
1. Assets purchased on hire purchase basis :
The auditor should take the following steps:
a) verify the minutes book of board meetings and see that
there is proper resolution passed by the board to approve
the purchase of asset on hire purchase books.
b) Examine the hire purchase agreement carefully and note
down the terms and conditions of the agreement.
c) Ensure that installments due are paid and the charges are
charged against current profits.
d) See that the depreciation is charged on cash price of the
asset.
e) See that the amount due to the hire vendor is shown as a
current liability on liability side.
f) For new purchase, check bill agreement or other
supporting.
(xvii) Live Stock
a) Check entries in Live Stock Register and compare them with
ledger and financial statement.
b) Book value in respect of animals which are dead or not useful
should be written off.
c) See whether management has taken physical count on regular
occasions.
(xviii) Stores and Spare Parts
1. The asset known as stores and spare parts consists of materials
which are means for consumption in the business and not for
resale. Lubricants, dyes, fuel, etc., are examples of stores, while
spare parts of machinery are preserved to maintain it in proper
order.
2. The asset as such should be clearly shown in the Balance Sheet.
164
3. The auditor should obtain an inventory of stores and spare parts
duly certified by a responsible officer. He should count the stock
himself and thus verify the existence by personal inspection, if
possible.
4. It is to be remembered that the stores consumed are debited to
the Manufacturing Account and spare parts used are debited to
the Machinery Account.
5. The asset is to be shown at cost price in the Balance Sheet. It is
not a depreciable asset by use and provision for depreciation is
not necessary.
6. However, the loss on account of breakage or waste on being worn
out should be duly written off.
7. The asset should be revalued annually.
(xix) Contingent Assets
Some of the examples of contingent assets may be the following :
(a) Option to apply for shares in another company on favourable terms;
(b) Refund of octroi paid for goods sent out later on;
(c) Claim for money from a previous endorser of a bills receivable
discounted but might be dishonoured;
(d) Uncalled share capital;
(e) Legal action for infringement of a copyright, etc.
165
Usually, contingent assets are not shown at the foot of the
Balance Sheet on the assets side and the Companies Act does not
require the contingent assets to be disclosed as such.
(xx) Remittance in Tansit
The question of remittance-in-transit will arise where there is a
head office and branch office and head office sends cash for meeting the
day-to-day expenses. If at the end of the year probably in the last week,
cash might have been sent by the head office but not received by the
branch office or alternatively branch might have sent its collection from
customers to the head office but the head office might not have received it
before the end of the accounting period, then it is a case of “Remittance in
Transit.”
(a) To verify this item the auditor should call for the bank statements
of head office and branches and reconcile them. Any cash
received by the branch or head office in the first week of the new
accounting year might have been in transit on the last day of the
previous year. For the purpose of recording such cash in the
balance sheet an entry is passed in the books as :
Cash in transit A/c Dr.
To Branch A/c. or Head Office A/c.
(b) Verify cash in transit from the Cash Book/Pass Book or
subsequent period as to whether actually it is received or not.
(c) Check the statement of Reconciliation of H.O. and Branch
Accounts.
(d) Verify pay-in-slip, if the amount is deposited into the bank.
(e) See that the entry passed as per item no. (a) is reversed in the
next year.
166
(xxi) Miscellaneous Expenditure
According to Schedule VI of the Companies Act, 1956,
Miscellaneous Expenditure (to the extent not written off) are as follows :
(a) Preliminary Expenses.
(b) Commission or Brokerage on underwriting or subscription
of Shares or Debentures.
(c) Discount allowed on issue of Shares or Debentures
(d) Interest paid out of capital.
(e) Development and other expenditure
(a) Preliminary, Expenses
1. These are the expenses incurred for creating or incorporating a
company i.e. legal expenses for drafting Memorandum of
Association, Articles of Association, Stamp fees, etc.
2. Auditor should check the prospectus or the statement in lieu of
prospectus for amount of preliminary expenses.
3. Contract with promoters, vendors, underwriters should be
checked.
4. Board of Directors authorization for payment of expenses should
be checked. Receipts should be obtained for payments.
5. Actual expenditure for preliminary expenses should not exceed
amount mentioned in prospectus or statement in lieu of
prospectus. Such excess should be approved by shareholders in
general meeting.
167
6. Preliminary expenses can be written off against Share Premium
Account (Section 78), if any.
7. Preliminary expenses should be written off in a reasonable
number of years (usually 3 to 5 years).
8. Preliminary expenses to the extent not written off should be shown
under Miscellaneous Expenditure, on the Asset side of the
Balance Sheet.
9. Preliminary expenses written off during the year should be shown
separately in the Profit & Loss Account.
(b) Commission or Brokerage on Issue of Shares or Debentures
(Sec. 76) :
1. Such commission should be allowed by Articles of Association.
2. Rate of commission should not exceed 5% of the share issue price
or rate prescribed under Articles of Association, whichever is
lower.
3. Rate of commission should not exceed 2.5% of the debentures
issue price or rate prescribed under Articles of Association
whichever is lower.
4. Amount of commission payable should be mentioned in
prospectus or statement in lieu of prospectus.
5. Copy of contract should be filed with the Registrar.
168
6. However in case of brokerage (i.e. percentage of commission
payable to brokers who deal in shares and procuring of shares,
etc.) above mentioned restriction of 5% or 2.5% is not applicable.
7. Actual payment should be authorized by Board of Directors.
8. Commission on issue of shares or debentures can be written off
against Share Premium Account (Section 78) if any.
9. Such commission or brokerage should be written off in a
reasonable number of years (usually 3 to 5 years).
10. Commission or brokerage to the extent not written off should be
shown under Miscellaneous Expenditure on Asset side of the
Balance Sheet.
11. Commission or brokerage written off during the year should be
shown separately in Profit & Loss Account.
(c) Discount allowed on Issue of Shares or Debentures (Sec.79) :
Auditor should verify :
1. Such discount should be approved by ordinary resolution in
general meeting as well as it should be authorized by the
Company Law Board.
2. Rate of discount cannot exceed 10% unless higher percentage is
approved by Company Law Board.
3. Such shares cannot be issued within one year from certificate of
commencement. Further such shares should be issued within two
months from the date on which issue is sanctioned by Company
law Board.
169
4. Prospectus should contain particulars regarding discount.
5. Discount on issue of shares or debentures can be written off
against Share Premium Account (Section 78) if any.
6. Such discount should be written off in a reasonable number of
years. (usually 3 to 5 years).
7. Such Discount to the extent not written off should be shown under
Miscellaneous Expenditure on Asset side of the Balance Sheet.
8. Discount on issue of share or debenture written off during the year
should be shown separately in Profit & Loss Account.
(d) Payment of interest out of Capital (Section 208)
Auditor should verify :
1. Such interest is allowed when construction work started by the
company cannot be completed for some years, e.g. construction of
plant and machinery, etc.
2. Such interest should be authorized by Articles of Association or by
special resolution. Further the Central Government approval is
necessary for payment of such interest.
3. Rate of interest cannot exceed 4% p.a. It cannot be paid after the
half year immediately succeeding half year in which construction
work was completed.
4. Actual payment of interest should be checked with entries in bank
statement.
170
5. Payment of interest out of capital according to Section 208 does
not amount to reduction of capital.
6. Such interest can be debited to cost of construction or it can be
treated as deferred revenue expenditure which would be shown
under `Miscellaneous Expenditure’.
7. In case such interest is transferred to `Miscellaneous Expenditure’,
it should be written off in a reasonable number of years (i.e. 3 to 5
years)
8. The amount written off during the year should be shown
separately in Profit & Loss Account.
(e) Development and other expenditure
Auditor should verify :
1. Board of Directors approval for such expenditure.
2. Receipts should be obtained from persons to whom payment is
made.
3. Deferred Revenue Expenditure should be written off as early as
possible (usually 3 to 5 years )
5. The amount written off should be shown separately in Profit &
Loss Account.
6.
171
Examples of other expenditure.
(a) Heavy advertisement expenditure for introducing a product.
(b) Research and development expenditure etc.
7.10 AN AUDITOR IS NOT A VALUER
Valuation of assets means determining the fair value of the assets
as on the date of the balance Sheet. Verifying such value of assets is an
important part of the auditor’s duties. As the assets are belonging to the
proprietors, it is their basic duty to see that the value of assets is properly
determined on the basis of generally accepted accounting principles.
What the auditor is required to do is satisfy himself that all the assets are
shown at their “full and fair value”. Auditor need not himself value the
assets. But he has just to see whether the value that have been placed
are true, correct and fair. As such he has to apply his skill, intelligence
and tactfulness to confirm the values of the assets as indicated. Usually
assets are valued by specially qualified persons like valuers and
surveyors. Hence he can rely on the certificate issued by those
professionals, but must disclose the fact of this in his report. An auditor is
not supposed to have special technical knowledge in respect of valuation
of assets. But he should always try to examine the value of assets himself
with the help of supporting evidence available with the company. He has
also to depend many a times upon the valuation made by the directors,
partners and proprietors of the organization.
Therefore, we say that “An auditor is intimately connected with
values”. Because, it is the duly of the auditor to decide the value of the
asset himself only he has to see whether the value decided upon is
correct, fair and true. Because, if the assets are not properly valued,
Balance Sheet will not give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of a
concern. Though auditor is not a valuer he is liable for improper valuation
of assets if the same is not verified by himself i.e. negligence in the
verification of the value of assets makes an auditor liable for negligence.
Hence, whenever he feels that the value of any asset as disclosed is not
proper or fair he should mention the fact in his report and disown the
responsibility. Mere informing the directors or proprietors regarding
irregularity does not absolve him from his liabilities. Though the auditor is
not the guarantor of the value of asset, he has to be careful while
certifying the Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account, because third
parties place their reliance on the audited Balance sheet to take their
172
important decisions. Therefore, auditor has to take sufficient precautions
while accepting the valuation of assets. If he checks the value of the
assets intelligently and with utmost care he cannot be held liable for
negligence.
As the auditor is liable to an unlimited extent for indeterminate
period of time to an indefinite class of people, he has to be very careful
while accepting the valuation of assets. Hence, he is not a valuer, but
surely connected with values intimately.
7.11. VERIFICATION OF LIABILITIES :
Meaning : The verification of liabilities implies an enquiry into the
nature, extent and existence of liabilities.
It involves ensuring the following:
1. That all the liabilities have been clearly stated on the liability side of
the Balance Sheet.
2. That all the liabilities reiate to the business itself.
3. That they are correct and authorized.
4. That they are shown in the Balance sheet at their actual figures.
It is an important duty of an auditor to verify the liabilities
appearing in the Balance Sheet of the company. The object of verification
of liabilities is to ascertain whether there is any improper inflation or
deflation of values or improper creation of an imaginary liability in the
books. This form of manipulation is done in most cases to inflate or
deflate the profits of the concern and thus make the position of the
business appear stronger than what actually is, to create a secret reserve.
As a result of such manipulation, the Profit and Loss Account and the
Balance Sheet prove to be incorrect and thus the Balance Sheet does not
173
exhibit a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the concern. So, the
auditor must take all possible steps to ensure that all liabilities are
recorded properly in the books of accounts of the business. It is advisable
that the auditor should, besides verifying the liabilities as shown in the
Balance Sheet, get a certificate from the management that all liabilities of
any nature have been included in the books of accounts and the
contingent liabilities have been shown by way of a foot-note to the
Balance Sheet or have been provided for.
ILLUSTRATIONS
(i) Share Capital : Though capital is not a liability of the company the
auditor is required to verify it so that he can report on the genuineness of
the balance sheet.
The duties of the auditor can be enumerated as follows :
1. If it is the first year of existence of the company
(a) He should examine the Memorandum of Association and Articles
of Association
(b) He should check the Cash Book, Pass Book, Director’s Minute
Book to find out the number of shares, the various classes of
shares, the amount received thereon and the amount due from the
shareholders.
(c) If some shares have been allotted to the vendors, he should
examine the agreement between the vendors and the company.
(d) In case shares are issued at a premium he should ensure that the
premium on issue should be credited to a separate account.
(e) Allotment and call money should be verified.
174
(f) He should check the forfeiture and reissue of shares, if any
(h) He should ensure that all the relevant provisions of the Companies
Act are complied with.
(2) If it is not the first year of the company
(a) The share capital would be the same as in the previous year
unless there are some alterations or addition by way of fresh issue
or otherwise. He should ensure that the relevant legal provision
are fulfilled.
(b) Similarly for reduction of share capital, he should see the
provisions of the Act as specified in Sec. 100.
(c) In case bonus shares are issued, the auditor should check
whether the permission from concerned authorities is taken,
whether proper resolution is passed and whether the capitalization
entries are correctly passed.
(d) In case rights shares are issued the auditor should check the bank
book, bank statements. He should ensure that the required
resolutions are passed and that the permission of the concerned
authorities is taken, with particular reference to Sec. 81.
(ii) Reserves and Surplus : Reserves may be general or specific in
nature. Sinking fund, Capital Redemption Reserve, Reserve for
Contingencies are specific reserves.
Auditor’s duty in verification of reserves is as follows :
(1) He should check the Profit and Loss Appropriation account for
transfer to reserves, to see the provisions of transfer of profit to
reserve are complied with.
175
(2) He should check the board resolution for transferring the profit to
the respective reserves.
(3) He should ensure that the movement in the reserve accounts i.e.
additions to/deductions from previous year’s balance are properly
disclosed as per the requirements of the law.
(4) Ensure that reserves are properly utilized as required by law.
(5) See that the reserves are properly disclosed in the balance sheet
as per the law.
(iii) Loans Borrowed
For verification of loans, the auditor should consider the following
points :
1. The auditor should examine the Memorandum and Articles of the
Company to find out the powers of the Company to borrow money.
2. The auditor should examine the agreement and correspondence
regarding the loan.
3. The auditor should vouch the receipts of cash on account of loan,
with the receipts issued in respect of the loan and the
corresponding entries in the cash book.
4. The auditor should examine the certificate of registration issued by
the Registrar of Companies, if the loan has been secured by
mortgaging any property.
5. The auditor should vouch the payment of interest with the
counterfoils of the receipts issued to the vendors and the
corresponding entries in the Cash Book.
176
6. He should also check the repayment of loan with the counterfoils
of the cheque books, the bank pass book and the cash book.
In addition to the above, the auditor may ask for a confirmatory
letter from the party who has advanced the loan to ensure that the interest
on loan is not due and the recoupments of loan are recorded in the books
of account correctly.
In the case of bank overdraft, the agreement with the bank and the
security offered should be examined by the auditor.
(iv) Trade Creditors :
1. The auditor should ask for a schedule of creditors and check the
same with the purchase ledger as that is already examined by
him.
2. He should ensure that all purchase made during the year
especially at the end of the year are included in the accounts of
the creditors.
3. In case of suspicion about any creditors, the auditor with the
consent of the client can ask the statement of account to be sent
and verify the same by scrutinizing ledger accounts.
4. He should see the various debtis given for discount, goods
returned etc, and confirm that the same are genuine.
6. The auditor should ask for the reason for not paying any
overdue creditors.
177
(v) Contingent Liabilities
Contingent liabilities are those liabilities which may or may not
arise in the future for payment. The auditor’s duty is to see that all known
and unknown liabilities have been brought into the accounts at the date of
the Balance Sheet and have been shown in the Balance Sheet separately
as such.
1. Liabilities on Bills Receivable discounted and not matured : If
the bills receivable are discounted with a bank and the money so
received from it is made use of, the entire money will be refunded
to the bank if the acceptor does not make payment on the date of
its maturity. This is why such a contingent liability is distinctly
shown in the Balance Sheet by way of a footnote.
2. Liabilities for calls on partly paid shares : The amount called
on shares held and paid should be verified from the cash book and
the liability for the amount uncalled should be ascertained.
3. Liability under a guarantee : The auditor should ascertain the
liability for a guarantee given by the client for a loan or overdraft to
his friend or partner. In case of non payment of such a loan, the
possible liability should be ascertained.
4. Liability for cases against the company not acknowledged as
debts : It is a liability in a disputed case where damages may
have to be paid. A contingent liability should be ascertained and a
note should be made at the foot of the Balance Sheet.
5. Liability in respect of arrears of Dividend on Cumulative
preference Shares : The auditor should examine the Articles of
Association which should lay down rules in this regard and due
provision should be made for such a liability.
178
Auditor’s duty : The auditor should very carefully check the
various contingent liabilities named above. There may be some
such liabilities for which no provision has been made in the books
but merely a note has been made at the foot of the Balance Sheet,
e.g. Bills Receivable which have been discounted and which have
not matured at the date of the Balance Sheet, arrears of fixed
cumulative dividends, etc. For liabilities in respect of which
provision has to be made in the Balance Sheet, viz a suit, etc., the
auditor should examine such cases and ascertain the amount to
be specifically reserved for the purpose. The auditor should
examine the Director’s Minute Book, correspondence made with
the legal advisers and the information obtained from the officials of
the business. He has to ensure that proper provision has been
made for all such liabilities and if he is not satisfied, he should
mention the fact in his report. It is to be remembered that the
requirements of the Companies Act regarding the contingent
liability should be complied with in the Balance Sheet on the
liabilities side.
(vi) Provision for Taxation :
1. In case of a limited company it is compulsory that the taxation
provision is to be made. But it cannot be ascertained accurately
because the final liability on this account can be known only when
the assessment is completed. Therefore, a fair estimate for
providing this liability is necessary. Hence, the auditor has to
verifty the calculation done to arrive at the provision expected to
be made.
2. However, when finally the assessment is over, the auditor should
see that the excess or short provision is properly adjusted in the
books.
3. Where any appeal is pending and the liability challenged, the
same is a contingent liability. Hence the same is to be properly
ascertained and disclosed in the Balance sheet.
179
(viii) Employees’ deposits :
Normally, in commercial and industrial ventures, the employees
who deal with cash or stores are required to deposit cash security as a
safeguard against some possible mis-appropriation or pilferage.
Sometimes, the employees instead of paying cash, endorse trustee
securities in favour of the employers. It should be remembered in this
connection that :
1. Such a security in cash or in securities should be deposited
separately in the bank.
2. It should be shown distinctly on the liabilities side of the Balance
Sheet.
3. He should verify the amount of deposits by reference to the
certified schedule received from the client.
(viii) Reserve for Bad and doubtful Debts
The verification should be done as follows :
1. The auditor should obtain a certificate from some responsible
officer of the business and then check the amount provided for
bad and doubtful debts.
2. The schedule of debtors should be compared with the balance of
ledger accounts to ascertain the possible amount of bad and
doubtful debts.
3. The adequacy of such a reserve has specially to be checked. He
should examine the nature, the circumstance of a particular
business and the necessary rules in practice in this connection.
180
(ix) Bills Payable :
The auditor should verify the Bills Payable in the following ways:
1. The Bills Payable Book should be checked with the Bills Payable
Account.
2. The Bills Payable already paid should be checked from the Cash
Book and the returned Bills Payables should be examined.
3. To verify the Bills Payables which have not yet matured at the year
end, the auditor should examine the Bills Payable book and should
check the Cash Book of the succeeding years to see whether any
payment has been made in respect of such bills. In case of any
doubt, the auditor may ask the drawers for the confirmation of the
bill.
4. The auditor should see if any charge has been created on the
assets of the concern by accepting the bill and he should see that
the facts are disclosed in the Balance Sheet.
(x) Proposed Dividend :
1. The auditor should ensure that the dividend proposed complies
with the provisions of the Companies Act, the decisions of the
Court, especially in the matters of provision for depreciation,
distribution of capital profits, transfer to reserves etc.
2. The auditor should verifty the board resolution and the entry in the
Profit and Loss Appropriation account.
3. The auditor should ensure that as per the requirements of the
Companies Act, 1956 gross dividend has been provided for.
181
4. To ensure completeness, the auditor should cross-check the
names in the dividend list with those in the register of
shareholders.
(xi) Outstanding Expenses :
The auditor should obtain a certificate from a responsible officer to
the effect that all the outstanding expenses have been included in the
current year’s accounts. The amount paid on various accounts should be
verified from the entries in the Cash Book. It should be ensured that the
outstanding expenses included that part which is unpaid at the date of the
Balance Sheet. The following points should be noted.
1. He should carefully note that all expenses, e.g. rent, rates,
interest, wages, salary, audit fee, legal expenses, etc., have been
accounted for in the books.
2. He should check entries in the books passed on the basis of
invoices to ensure that they are not related to the year under audit.
3. He should compare all the paid and unpaid expenses of the
current year with those of the previous year to see that there is not
much difference.
4. It should be ensured that all outstanding wages and salaries have
subsequently been paid.
(xii) Bank Overdraft
The verficiation of bank overdraft will be on the same lines as that
of loans and advances. The difference is that it is the financial assistance
obtained from the bank. The auditor should examine the Bank Pass book
and call for a statement of mortgaged assets. It is to be remembered that
the assets so mortgaged should be clearly stated as such in the Balance
Sheet.
182
(xiii) Debentures :
1. The auditor has to examine the provisions regarding the power of
the company to issue debentures as contained in Memorandum
and Articles of Association.
2. If the debenture is issued as mortgage debenture, he has to verify
the registration certificate issued by the Registrar.
3. He should carefully examine the terms of debentures issue as
contained in Trust Deed and ensure that the same have been
properly complied with.
4. The auditor should vouch the cash received on this account with
the cash book.
5. The auditor should verify whether the interest on debentures is
paid or provided, properly at regular intervals invervals or not.
6. In case the debentures have been redeemed during the year the
same is to be confirmed with the Minutes of Board of directors.
Counterfoils of the cheque books. Bank Pass book and Cash
book, returned debenture certificate etc.
7. If the debentures have been issued as a collateral security,
then he should see that the fact is properly disclosed in the
Balance Sheet.
183
(xiv) Unclaimed Dividend
For verifying unclaimed dividend, the auditor should follow the
following procedure.
1. See that the Bank Account from which dividend is paid is properly
reconciled. See that dividend account is opened for each year to
avoid mistake of one year’s dividend getting mixed up with next
year’s dividend. See that no entries remain in these Bank
Accounts reconciliation like accounts debited by bank but not
accounted in books, etc. because then the Unclaimed Dividend
shown in the books will be wrong.
2. See that wherever dividend is declared on shares, where calls are
in arrears and directors have decided to adjust the dividend
payable against calls in arrears, the appropriate entries have been
booked.
3. See that a full list of shareholders who have not claimed dividend
is prepared. This is necessary firstly to prove that there are no
mistakes commited while reconciling the Bank Account and
secondly to prove the accuracy of the Member’s Register. The
auditor should compare this list with the Member’s Register to see
that unclaimed dividend for every shareholder is matching with the
number of shares held by him as per Share Register. This will also
disclose if any dividend is paid to a shareholder who has already
transferred his shares provided he has not encashed his dividend
warrant.
5. See that if the statutory time limit of 3 years is over, the money
being in Unclaimed Dividend Account is transferred to the Central
Government with details of shareholders who have not claimed the
dividend.
184
(xv) Calls in Arrears :
The auditor should verify Calls in Arrears as under :
1. Find out whether calls in arrears are arising on account of capital
issued during the year or is continuing on account of capital issued
in earlier years.
2. If it is on account of capital issued during the year, see that correct
amount has been arrived at towards call in arrears by referring to
the application form money paid towards application, shares
allotted, total share money payable, calls made, calls money
payable and calls paid. For this he will have to conduct share
allotment audit to arrive at all the relevant data.
3. In case calls are in arrears from earlier years, see that reminders
have been sent to the shareholders for payment of calls. If the
Board has decided to charge interest on such calls in arrears see
that reminder contains the request to pay the calls in arrears with
interest. If any part of the calls in arrears have been received
during the year on which interest was payable see that such call
moneys are received with interest.
4. If any transfer application has been received for shares on which
some calls are in arrears, see that no transfer has been effected
without arrears having been paid first.
5. If the Directors have declared dividend, see that dividend payable
on such shares is proportionately reduced and if the directors have
decided to appropriate dividend on such shares where calls are in
arrears see that dividend is not physically paid out but appropriate
accounting entries crediting calls in arrears and debiting dividend
payable is passed.
6. See that, if the Board has passed any Resolution forfeiting shares
on which calls are in arrears, the same is reflected properly in the
accounts by passing of necessary entries and such shares are not
185
continued to be shown as part of capital at full value and calls in
arrears continued to be deducted therefrom.
(xvi) Fixed Deposits :
The auditor should keep in mind the following points while
conducting a fixed deposit verification –
1. Fixed Deposits should be accepted according to Section 58A of
Companies Act, 1956 and Reserve Bank of India’s guidelines.
2. Fixed deposits from director for less than six months (but
exceeding 3 months) should not exceed 10% of paid up share
capital and free reserves.
3. Total fixed deposits should not exceed 25% of paid-up share
capital and free reserves.
4. Fixed deposit should not be accepted if the period exceeds 36
months.
5. Interest on fixed deposits can not exceed 15% p.a.
6. Brokerage can be paid subject to limits mentioned below.
(a) Upto 1 year – not to exceed 1% of amount of deposits.
(b) 1 to 2 years – not to exceed 1.25% of amount of deposits
(c) 2 to 3 years – not to exceed 1.50% of amount of deposits.
7. Liquid assets should be maintained at not less than 10% of
deposits maturing 31st March.
186
8. Receipts should be issued to the deposit holders.
9. Fixed Deposit Register should be maintained.
10. Return of fixed deposits should be sent to the Registrar before 30th
June. In case it is not sent, auditor should mention it in the
Auditor’s Report as per Section 45 MA of Reserve Bank of India
Act, 1934.
11. Interest accrued but not due should be provided and it should be
shown under Current Liabilities.
12. Fixed Deposits received along with accrued and due interest
would be shown under `Unsecured Loans’.
7.12 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOUCHING AND
VERIFICATION
Point of Difference Vouching Verification
1. Meaning The act of examining
the vouchers is known
as vouching. A voucher
is any documentary
evidence in support of
a transaction entered
in the books of
account.
Vouching involves
estabilishing the
arithmetical accuracy
Verification an be
explained as
establishing the truth
or securing some kind
of confirmation with
respect to the assets
and liabilities
appearing in the
Balance Sheet of a
concern.
Verification goes
beyond vouching. It
seeks to establish that
assets as stated in the
Balance Sheet of a
187
2. Nature & Purpose
3. Time
4. Utility
5. Personnel
and the authenticity of
the transactions of a
concern. Vouching
proves that an asset
ought to exist.
It is done during the
whole year.
Certifies correctness of
records.
It is done by the junior
staff of the auditor
under the supervision
of a senior person.
concern exist in fact
and that the liabilities
are properly disclosed.
Verification proves that
an asset does exist.
It is done at the end of
the year.
Certifies correctness of
assets and liabilities.
It is done by the
auditor himself
assisted by senior.
7.12.1 EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by “Verification”? What are the points to be
considered by an auditor during such Verification?
2. Why should an auditor verify assets which are shown in the
balance sheet?
188
3. What is Verification? How does it differ from Vouching?
4. What is Valuation? Discuss – “Auditor is not a Valuer, but he is
intimately connected with values”.
5. How would you verify the following – (1) Plant & Machinery (2)
Building (3_ Motor cars and Vehicles (4) Freehold Land (5)
Leasehold Land (6) Assets on Hire Purchase (7) Goodwill (8)
Patents (9) Know-how (10) Wasting Assets (11) Miscellaneous
Expenditure not written-off (12) Deferred Revenue Expenditure
(13) Fictitious Assets (14) Investments (15) Immovable Properties
(16) Investment in Partnership Firms (17) Debtors (18) Bills
Receivable (19) Loans given (20) Loans Given against security
(21) Cash (22) Bank Balance (23) Share Capital (24) Loan Taken
(25) Loans Taken against Security (26) Secured Loans from
Banks (27) Loans taken against Mortgage of Property (28)
Secured Debenture (29) Creditors (30) Bills Payable (31)
Provision for Income-Tax (32) Unclaimed Dividends (33)
Contingent Liabilities (34) Proposed Dividends (35) General
Reserves (36) Capital Reserve (37) Sinking Fund,
6. How would you check the valuation of the following :
(1) Tangible fixed Assets (2) Wasting assets (3) Freehold Land (4)
Leashold Land (5) Building (6) Plant & Machinery (7) Goodwill (8)
Deferred Revenue Expenditure (9) Investments (10) Securities
against Loans.
189
7.13 STOCK VERIFICATION
(i) Meaning of Stock-In-Trade
According to Accounting Standard 2, Stock is a tangible property
held for -
(a) sale in the ordinary course of business or
(b) in the process of production for such sale or
(c) for consumption in the production of goods (i.e. consumable
stores).
(ii) Verification of Stock
Verification of stock means physical counting, measuring and to
verify so as to determine the quantity of stock to be considered for stock
valuation.
Verification of Stock-in Trade is more difficult than of any other
asset due to the following reasons –
(a) It is subject to frequent changes and constitutes the largest
current asset of the business.
(b) Numerous methods of pricing the stock-in-trade are in
existence.
(c) The determination of its value directly influences the sales
and income of the year.
(d) It is exposed to greater risk of defalcation or manipulation
190
(iii) Objectives of verification of stock-in trade are :
(a) Ascertainment of the correct profit/loss made during the
accounting year.
(b) Disclosure of True and Fair financial position of the business.
(c) Preparation of correct statement of claims for loss of stock, if
any, due to fire, flood etc.
(d) Determination of the value of stock on consignment.
(e) Determination of value of stock sold on `Sale or return basis’.
(f) Ascertainment of ownership of stock.
(g) Ascertainment of the fact whether the stock is free from any
charge.
7.13.a Auditors duty as regards verification of stock :
As the correctness of the profit of a business depends to a great
extent on the accuracy of the valuation placed on the closing stock, it will
be readily appreciated that the verification of this asset forms one of the
most important part of an auditor’s duty. While verifying the stock-in-trade
the auditor has the following duties –
(a) Ascertain the method of stock-taking and the basis of
valuation.
191
(b) Ensure that the stock-sheets have been subjected to a good
internal check, e.g. they are certified as to have taken prices,
extension and additions while determining the stock and also
generally approved as correct by managing director.
(c) Check calculations and additions.
(d) Check a few of the important items with actual invoices as to
prices.
(e) Examine some of the quantities in stock-sheets with those
shown by the stock books, if such stock books are kept.
(f) Ascertain that the stock is valued on the same basis as in the
previous year.
(g) Ascertain that obsolete and unsaleable stock is shown at fair
market prices.
(g) Compare the percentage of gross profit on turnover with that
of the previous period and also enquire into the cause of any
notable fluctuation.
(i) Ensure that the goods entered as sold and not delivered
are not included.
(j) Ensure that the goods bought and not entered in the
invoice book are included.
(k) (i) Ascertain that the value of unfinished goods is
taken at actual cost and the basis of valuation is the
cost of the materials consumed and the wages spent
thereon upon the date of the Balance Sheet.
Sometimes a percentage is added in the above to
192
cover the factory cost, such as foreman’s wages, fuel,
power, lighting, heating, depreciation of plant etc.
(ii) In case of finished goods, a reasonable percentage in
respect of office cost has also to be added to the
works cost.
(l) See that the goods sold on approval basis are
properly included in closing stock.
(m) See that the stock held does not include goods held
on consignment as an agent.
(n) Examine carefully the stock sheets and ensure that the
stock includes only the goods dealt with by the client and
does not include any asset purchased.
(o) Confirm that stock has been valued at cost or market price,
whichever is less.
(p) Obtain from a responsible officer of the organization a
certificate regarding the procedure followed in valuation of
stock.
(q) Obtain a certificate from client certifying that :
(i) Physical verification of stock is done.
(ii) All goods included in the stock are property of the
company.
(iii) Cut off procedure is properly followed. (Cut off is a
transaction which separates one accounting year from
the next accounting year. Last document nos. of goods
193
received notes, goods accepted notes, debit and credit
notes etc. should be obtained at the time of stocktaking).
(iv) The basis of valuation is the same as was followed in
the previous year.
7.13.1 Auditor’s duty regarding verification of stock based on case
laws
Case I : Kingston Cotton Mills Co. Ltd. (1896)
It was held that it is not part of an auditor’s duty to take stock.
Auditor can rely on other people for details of stock-in-trade. In the same
judgement, Justice Lopez observed that `An Auditor is not bound to be a
detective’. It was held that in the absence of suspicious circumstances
auditor can rely on certificate given by the company.
Case 2 : Irish Woollen co. Ltd. v/s Tyson & others (1900)
It was held that there was certainly no duty on the auditor to take
stock.
Case 3 : Westminster Road Construction Co. (1932)
It was held that the auditor is liable for damages for not detecting
the overvaluation of work-in-progress even though sufficient information
was available to him. He will be guilty of negligence if he fails to take
notice of all available evidence.
194
Case 4 : Mckesson and Robbins (1939)
It was held that the auditor should verify inventory either by test or
by observation or by combination of these two methods. Auditor was held
liable for certifying a Balance Sheet in which stock-in-hand represented
was totally non-existent.
Position in India :
(a) In the case of audit of a limited company the auditor has to report
whether the company final accounts are in agreement with the
books.
Also under Schedule VI to the Companies Act, 1956 the auditor
should ensure that the closing stock is disclosed under the head
Current Asset as under :
Stores and spare parts
Loose tools
Stock-in-trade
Work-in-progress.
(b) According to CARO physical verification should be conducted by
management at reasonable periods for finished goods, stores,
spare parts and raw materials.
Therefore, primary duty of verification is on the management but
as per Mckesson and Robbins case the auditor should test check
195
or by observation or by combination of these two methods ensure
that stock-sheets include proper quantity.
(c) U/s 209(1)(b) of the Companies Act, 1956 proper books of
accounts should be maintained by the company for all sales and
purchases of goods.
(d) U/s 541(2) of the Companies Act, 1956 if proper books of account
at the time of winding up are not kept and if annual stock-taking
statement and statement of goods sold and purchased for two
years immediately preceding the starting of winding up is not kept
then the auditor shall be held liable if he fails to point out this fact
in his audit report.
(e) According to the Statement on Auditing Practices issued by the
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) the auditor is
expected to verify the inventories in the following manner :
1. Obtain a certificate from the management regarding
physical inventory. However, the auditor must take
reasonable care to satisfy himself that -
(i) The procedures of stock taking were reasonable and would
justify the certificate given by the management and
(ii) The procedures were actually followed.
2. The auditor should check the original physical stock
sheets. If possible he should be present at least for
sometime during the stock taking and conduct a few
sample checks.
3. The auditor should ensure that the book stocks were
adjusted for any excess or shortage found on physical
verification.
4. In respect of stocks which are not lying with the concern
(goods sent for processing, goods on consignment etc) the
auditor must obtain and examine the confirmations from
the parties holding the stock.
196
Thus, the above decisions settled the principles as under :
(a) The stock basically belongs to the shareholders
and hence it is the duty of the management to
physically verify them. Most of the time an auditor
has no requisite staff or technical qualification to
verify them properly. Hence, the auditor is not
responsible for not verifying physical stock of a
company existing at the Balance sheet date. In
other words, it is not a part of auditor’s duty to take
stock.
(b) An auditor can rely on the certificate given by the
management regarding the verification and
valuation of stock existing on the date of the
Balance Sheet, after properly scrutinizing the
relevant documents available in this matter (as
seen in the case of Mckesson and Robbins).
After this discussion the professional bodies of
accountancy of the world have opined that though it
is not the duty of the auditor to take stock he should
ensure that verification of stock has taken place
properly either by presenting himself on the date of
verification of stock or by actually taking the stock
on the date of the Balance Sheet or by ensuring
that physical stock-taking was carried out by his
client properly.
Therefore, mere reliance on the certificate of
management without resorting to any type of test
check or evaluation cannot save an auditor from the
charge of negligence.
197
7.14 VALUATION OF STOCK-IN-TRADE
(i) Meaning :
Valuation of stock-in-trade means finding out the proper value of
the closing stock for recording in the books and disclosure in the account.
(ii) Auditor’s duty as regards stock valuation
1. The auditor should ensure that there is no change in the method of
valuation.
2. In case there is a change in method of valuation of stocks as
compared to the previous year, the auditor should disclose this
fact in his report and ensure that the method is proper and
recognized.
3. The auditor should ensure that the stock is valued and recorded
according to the generally accepted principles of evaluation. He
should ensure that the valuation is done in confirmation with the
guidelines issued by the ICAI.
4. The auditor should check the computational accuracy of stocks by
testing a few calculations involved in valuation.
5. The auditor should ensure that there is no over/under valuation of
stock which will distort the true and fair view of the accounts.
6. The auditor should see that as required by the Schedule VI to the
Companies Act, 1956, the values of stores and spare parts, loose
tools, stock-in-trade and work-in-progress must be disclosed
separately.
198
7. Under MAOCARO,1988 a company auditor has to report whether
(a) He is satisfied on the basis of the examination of stocks,
that suchvaluation is fair and proper in accordance with
normally accepted accounting principles.
(b) The basis of valuation of stocks is same as in the
proceeding year. If there is any change in the basis of
valuation the auditor has to report the effect of such
change.
(c) Any unserviceable or damaged stores, raw materials or
finished goods were determined on physical verification
and the provision for loss made and
(d) In the case of a trading company any damaged goods
have been determined and the provision for loss made.
8. As required by CARO, the auditor should ensure that the valuation
of stocks is fair and proper in accordance with the normally
accepted accounting principles. The principles are laid down by
the ICAI viz.
a. Statement on Auditing Practices.
b. Accounting standards – 2, Valuation of Inventory
The auditor should ensure that the provisions of the above
statements are taken care of while valuing stock.
8. The auditor should see that accounting policy for valuation of
inventories including the methods used is disclosed in the final
accounts.
199
7.15 VERIFICATION AND VALUATION OF GOODS ON
CONSIGNMENT
Meaning of Consignment Sale –
It is a transfer of goods by principal (i.e. consignor) to the agent
(i.e. consignee) at another place for sale on commission basis.
Verification and Valuation of stock on Consignment :
(i) Unsold stock should be physically verified by the management.
(ii) Auditor should obtain a certificate from consignee for unsold stock.
(iii) Account sale from consignee should be checked to find out how
much quantity should remain with the consignee.
(iv) Goods sent on consignment basis cannot be treated as sale.
Revenue cannot be recognised unitl goods are sold to the third
party.
(v) Further, consignee should not be debited for goods sent to him by
consignor.
(vi) Unsold stock should be valued at lower of cost and market value.
Cost should include non-recurring expenses of consignor and
consignee. Valuation of closing stock at cos should include
loading, carriage, insurance, freight, octroi, unloading charges etc.
However, selling and distribution expenses should not be included
in cost.
200
(vii) Normal loss on consignment should be segregated from abnormal
loss. Cost of item should be increased for normal loss, e.g.
evaporation etc. However, abnormal loss e.g. theft, fire etc. should
be transferred to Profit and Loss Account.
(viii) In case goods are sent at invoice price, stock reserve should be
created for unsold stock.
7.15 VALUATION OF
1. Goods on Approval :
(a) Goods sent on approval basis
When goods are sent to the customer on approval basis, the
property in the goods remains with the sender till the customer approves
them. If the customer does not communicate his decision within the
prescribed time, it is assumed that the goods are sold to him.
On the Balance Sheet date if the customer has some time left to
communicate his decision or has already communicated his unwillingness
to accept the goods then the property in the goods remains with sender
and the goods will be included in the stock of the sender. These goods
will be valued at cost. Damages, if any, caused during the course of
transit should be reduced and adjusted. Such goods cannot be valued at
a price higher than the market price.
(b) Goods received on approval basis :
Goods received on approval cannot be included in the closing
stock of the receiver unless he has approved such goods and recorded
the same in his books of account. These goods should be valued at cost
plus incidental expenses on purchase.
201
7.15.02 Goods in Tansit
(a) Goods in Transit Outward
When Goods sold are in transit and the seller has already invoiced
them and the sales invoice is recorded in his books of account, the goods
do not belong to the seller.
b) Goods in Transit Inward.
Till the goods are received they cannot become the property of the
purchaser. But if the risk has already commenced and if the purchaser is
responsible soon after their dispatch by the seller, the purchaser has to
pass the entry in his books. The goods would still be in transit and should
be recorded as such. Such goods should be valued at cost plus incidental
expenses incurred.
7.16 EXERCISES :
1. What do you mean by verification of stock. State the auditor’s
duties in this respect ?
2. What is stock valuation ? Explain the duties of the auditor in this
respect.
3. Write short notes on valuation of :-
(a) Goods Sent on consignment
(b) Goods in transit
(c) Goods on approval.
202
4. Define Stock-in-Trade. Discuss the objectives of Stock
Verification.
5. Discuss the position of the statutory auditor in regard to existence
and valuation of stock.
AUDITING TECHNIQUES:- VERIFICATION
5.1 AUDIT OF ASSETS
BOOK DEBTS/ DEBTORS:
The term ‘book debts’ suggests particularly amounts recoverable from
customers, but in practice it is applied to a wide range of claims which a
business may carry as an asset in its books. Advances or loans cannot,
however, be included under this head.
Verification of debtors may be carried out by employing the following
procedures:
(a) Examination of records;
(b) Direct confirmation procedure (also known as ‘circulation
procedure’)
(c) Analytical review procedures.
The nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be performed is,
however, a matter of professional judgement of the auditor. The general
procedure is as under:
Examination of Records
(z) The auditor should carry out an examination of the relevant records
himself about the validity, accuracy and recoverability of the debtor
balances. The extent of such examination would depend on the
auditor's evaluation of the efficacy of internal controls.
(it) The auditor should check the agreement of balances as shown in the
schedules of debtors with those in the ledger accounts. He should
also check the agreement of the total of debtor balances with related
control account. Any differences in this regard should be examined.
(Hi) Verification of subsequent realizations is a widely used procedure,
even in cases where direct confirmation procedure is followed. In the
203
case of significant debtors, the auditor should also examine the
correspondence or other documentary evidence to satisfy himself
about their validity and accuracy.
(z'v) While examining the schedules of debtors with reference to the
debtors' ledger accounts, the auditor should pay special attention to
the following aspects :
(a) Where the schedules show the age of the debts, the auditor should
examine whether the age of the debts has been properly
determined.
(/?) Where the amounts outstanding are made up of items which are not
overdue, having regard to the credit terms of the entity.
(c) Whether transfers from one account to another are properly
evidenced.
(d) Whether provisions for allowances, discounts and doubtful debts
should recognise that even though a debtor may have confirmed the
balance due by him, he may still not pay the same.
(v) The following are some of the indications of doubtful and uncollectible
debts, loans and advances :
(a) The terms of credit have been repeatedly ignored.
(b) There is stagnation, or lack of healthy turnover, in the account.
(c) Payments are being received but the balance is continuously
increasing.
(d) Payments, though being received regularly are quite small in relation
to the total outstanding balance.
(e) An old bill has been partly paid (or not paid), while later bills have
been fully settled.
(/) The cheques received from the debtors have been repeatedly
dishonoured,
(g) The debt is under litigation, arbitration, or dispute.
(h) The auditor becomes aware of unwillingness or inability of the debtor
to pay the dues, e.g. a debtor has either become insolvent, or has
closed down his business, or is not traceable.
(z) Amounts due from employees, which have not been repaid on
termination of employment.
(;) Collection is barred by statute of limitation.
(vi) Bad debts written off or excessive discounts or unusual allowances
should be verified with the relevant correspondence. Proper
authorization should be inspected.
204
(vit) In the case of claims made against insurance companies, shipping
companies, railways, etc., the auditor should examine the
correspondence or other available evidence to ascertain whether the
claims have been acknowledged as debts and there is a reasonable
possibility of their being realized. If it appears that they are not
collectible, they should be shown as doubtful. Similar considerations
apply in respect of claims for export incentives, claims for price
escalation in case of construction contracts, claims for interest on
delayed payments, etc.
(vz'z'z) The auditor should examine whether contingent liability, if any, in
respect of bills accepted by customers and discounted with the
banks is properly disclosed. He should also examine whether
adequate provision on this account has been made, where required.
Direct Confirmation Procedure
(z) The verification of balances by direct communication with debtors is
theoretically the best method of ascertaining whether the balances
are genuine, accurately stated and undisputed, particularly where
the internal control system is weak. The utility of this procedure
depends to a large extent on receiving adequate response to
confirmation requests. Therefore, in situations where the auditor has
reasons to believe, based on his past experience or other factors,
he may limit his reliance on direct confirmation procedure and place
greater reliance on the other auditing procedures.
(z'r) The auditor employs direct confirmation procedure with the consent
of the entity under audit. There may be situations where the
management of the entity requests the auditor not to seek
confirmation from certain debtors. In such cases, the auditor should
consider whether there are valid grounds for such a request. In
appropriate cases, the auditor may also need to reconsider the
nature, timing and extent of his audit procedures including the
degree of planned reliance on management's representations.
(z'z'z) The confirmation date, the method of requesting confirmations, and
the particular debtors from whom confirmation of balances is to be
obtained are to be determined by the auditor.
(z'v) The debtors may be requested to confirm the balances either (a) as
at the date of the balance sheet, or (b) as at any other selected date
which is reasonably close to the date of the balance sheet. The date
should be settled by the auditor in consultation with the entity.
(v) The form of requesting confirmation from the debtors may be either
(a) the 'positive' form of request, wherein the debtor is requested to
respond whether or not he is in agreement with the balance shown,
or (b) the 'negative' from of request wherein the debtor is requested
to respond only if he disagrees with the balance shown.
(vi) The use of the positive form is preferable when individual account
balances are relatively large, or where the internal controls are
205
weak, or where the auditor has reasons to believe that there may be
a substantial number of accounts in dispute or inaccuracies or
irregularities. ,,,.,.
(vii) The negative form is useful when internal controls are considered to
be effective, or when a large number of small balances are involved,
or when the auditor has no reason to believe that the debtors are
unlikely to respond. If the negative rather than the positive form of
confirmation is used, the number of requests sent and the extent of
the other auditing procedures to be performed should normally be
greater so as to enable the auditor to obtain the same degree of
assurance with respect to the debtor balances.
(viii) In many situations, it may be appropriate to use the positive form
for debtors with large balances and the negative form for debtors
with small balances.
(ix) Where the number of debtors is small, all of them may be
circularized, but if the debtors are numerous; this may be done on a
sample basis. The sample list of debtors to be circularized, in order
to be meaningful, should be based on a complete list of All debtor
accounts. While selecting the debtors to be circularized, special
attention Should be paid to accounts with large balances, accounts
with old outstanding balances, and customer accounts with credit
balances. In addition, the auditor Should consider accounts in
respect of which provisions have been made or balances have been
written off during the period under audit of earlier years and request
Confirmation of the balance without considering the provision or
write-off. The auditor may also consider including in his sample
some of the accounts with nil Balances. The nature of the entity's
business (e.g., the type of sales made or services rendered) and the
type of third parties with whom the entity deals, should also be
Considered in selecting the sample, so that the auditor can reach
appropriate conclusions about the debtors as a whole.
(x) In appropriate cases, the debtor may sent a copy of his complete
ledger account for a specific period as shown in the entity's books.
(jci) The method of selection of the debtors to be circularized should not
be revealed to the entity until the trial balance of the debtors' ledger
is handed over to the auditor. A list of debtors selected for
confirmation should be given to the entity for preparing requests for
confirmation which should be properly addressed and duly stamped,
The auditor should maintain strict control to ensure the correctness
and proper despatch of request letters. In the alternative, the auditor
may request the client to furnish duly authorised confirmation letters
and the auditor may fill in the names, addresses and the amounts
relating to debtors selected by him and mail the letters directly. It
206
should be ensured that confirmations as well as any undelivered
letters are returned to the auditor and not to the client.
(xii) Any discrepancies revealed by the confirmations received or by the
additional tests carried out by the auditor may have a bearing on
other accounts not included in the original sample. The entity should
be asked to investigate and reconcile the discrepancies. In addition,
the auditor should also consider what further tests he can carry out
in order to satisfy himself as to the correctness of the amount of
debtors taken as a whole.
Analytical Review Procedures •
In addition to the audit procedures discussed above, the following
analytical review procedures may often be helpful as a means of
obtaining audit evidence regarding the various assertions relating to
debtors, loans and advances :
(a) comparison of closing balances of debtors, loans and advances with
the corresponding figures or the previous year;
(b) Comparison of the relationship between current year debtor
balances and the current year sales with the corresponding
budgeted figures, if available;
(c) Comparison of actual closing balances of debtors, loans and
advances with the corresponding budgeted figures, if available;
(d) Comparison of current year's aging schedule with the corresponding
figures for the previous year;
(e) Comparison of significant ratios relating to debtors, loans and
advances with similar ratios for other firms in the same industry, if
available;
(/) comparison of significant ratios relating to debtors, loans and
advances with the industry norms, if available.
It may be clarified that the foregoing is only an illustrative list of analytical
review procedures which an auditor may employ in carrying out an audit
of debtors, loans and advances. The exact nature of analytical review
procedures to be applied in specific situation is a matter of professional
judgement of the auditor.
207
STOCK – AUDITOR’S GENERAL DUTIES
Patterns, Dies, Loose Tools, etc.
Several entities have large investments in such assets which have a
relatively short useful life and low unit cost. Evidently, it is a difficult
matter, under the circumstances, to prepare a separate account for each
such assets although a careful control over such property is necessary.
On these considerations, some entities charge off small tools and other
similar items to Production Account as and when they are purchased
and do not place any value on the unused stock on the Balance Sheet.
Nevertheless, a record of issues and receipts of tools to workmen is
kept, as a check on the same being pilfered and a memorandum stock
account of dies and patterns is also maintained. In other concerns, the
cost of tools, dies, etc. purchased is debited to appropriate assets
account, and an inventory of the unused items at the end of the year is
prepared and valued; the sum total of opening balance and purchase
reduced by the value of closing stock, as disclosed by the inventory, is
charged off to Production Account in respect of such assets. On the
other hand, some concerns carry such assets at their book values at the
end of the first year and charge off the cost of all the purchases in the
subsequent year to the Production Account on the plea that they
represent cost of replacement.
The most satisfactory method, however, is that of preparing an inventory
of serviceable articles, at the close of each year, and revaluing the assets
on this basis, the various articles included in the inventory being valued at
cost. Care, however, should be taken to see that the inventory does not
include any worn out or defective articles the life of which has already run
out.
EMPTIES & CONTAINERS QUOTED INVESTMENT AND UNQUOTED
INVESTMENT.
Trademarks and Copyright
The existence of a trademark is verified by an inspection of the certificate
as regards grant of the trademark. Where it has been purchased, the
agreement surrendering it in favour of the client should be examined. It
must also be observed that the rights are alive and legally enforceable.
208
Copyrights are also acquired by surrender of rights and they also should
be verified similarly. The auditor should obtain a schedule of trademarks
and copyrights arid verified that renewal fees have been paid and
charged to revenue. The last renewal receipt should, in each case, be
examined to ascertain that the trade mark has not lapsed. Copyrights and
trademarks are generally revalued at the cost of each financial period.
The auditor should seg that revaluation has been made on a fair and
reasonable basis. Where he finds that any publication has ceased to
command sale, he should have the amount of its copyright written off to
revenue.
Patent Rights
The ownership of a patent is verified by inspection of the certificate issued
in respect of grant of the patent. It has been purchased, the agreement
surrendering it in favour of the client should be examined. It must also be
observed that the rights are 'alive' and legally enforceable and renewal
fees have been paid on due dates by being charged to revenue and to
the Patent Account. The last renewal receipt should be examined to
ascertain that the patent has not lapsed. If a number of patents are held,
a schedule thereof should be obtained . Since the amount paid in respect
of each patent should be amortised over its life or a lesser period if its
commercial life is shorter, it should be seen that the rate at which the
value of each patent is being written off is adequate; its value would be
completely written off by the time it would cease to have a commercial
value. If the patent has been created by the client by research,
experiments and laboratory work, the auditor should ascertain that only
the actual cost incurred in the process has been capitalized. However, in
all cases the registration cost should be capitalised.
Know-how
Know-how in general is recorded in the books only when some
consideration in money or money's worth has been paid for it. Know-how
is generally of two types :- (t) relating to manufacturing process; and (it)
relating to plans, designs and drawings of buildings or plant and
machinery.
Know-how related to plans, design and drawings of buildings or plant and
machinery is capitalised under the relevant asset heads. In such a case
depreciation is calculated on the total cost of those assets, including the
cost of the know-how capitalised. Know-how related to manufacturing
209
processes is usually expensed in the year in which it is incurred.
Where the amount paid for know-how is a complete sum in respect of
both manufacturing process and related to plans, designs etc. such
amount should be apportioned amongst them on a reasonable basis.
Where the consideration for the supply of know-how is a series of
recurring annual payments as royalties, technical assistance fees,
contribution to research, engineering, etc. are charged to the profit and
loss account each year.
Plant and Machinery
In the absence of a Plant Register containing detailed particulars of
various articles of machinery and equipment, showing separately original
cost, addition to and sales from it from time to time. It is not normally
practicable for the auditor to verify the existence of such assets. The
auditors should therefore insist on a Plant Register being maintained
where the value and variety of machinery and plant are substantial in
comparison with the total assets of the business.
Where such a register is kept, it is customary to prepare at the end of
each year a statement from the Plant Register showing opening balance,
sale and addition thereto during the year in respect of various items of
machinery and plant. Its total is then reconciled with the balance in the
General Ledger.
The cost of addition, if any, is verified with the invoice of machinery
supplied together with evidence in respect of other incidental expenses
chargeable to the account, including installation expenses. If any of the
addition represents the cost of machinery manufactured by the concern
with its own material and by its own labour, the basis on which the
expenditure has been allocated should be verified. In addition, a
certificate is obtained from the engineer responsible for the manufacture
of the plant confirming the total cost of manufacture.
In case any item or machinery has been scrapped, destroyed or sold the
auditor should ascertain that the profit or loss arising thereon has been
210
correctly determined which has either been disclosed in the Profit and
Loss Account or credited to the Capital Reserve. In appropriate
circumstances, a certificate should be obtained from a senior official that
this has been done.
Though it is the duty of the management to ensure that fixed assets are
in existence, the auditor also should, periodically, physically examine
various items of plant and machinery and other fixed assets, say, once in
every three or five years, depending upon the size of the concern.
Certain companies, for convenience of inspection attach to each unit of
plant and machinery a metallic disc bearing the number at which it is
shown in the Plant Register.
When an asset has been revalued, depreciation should be provided on
the revised value and not on the historical value.
Land and Buildings
Sometimes the two assets are shown together in the Balance Sheet.
Nevertheless, their ledger accounts should always be separated
particularly in view of the fact that buildings are subject to depreciation
while land in general is not.
The land holdings should be verified by an inspection of the original title
deed to ensure that the land described therein covers all the lands the
cost of which is debited in the books of the concern. The auditor however,
not being competent to verify the regularity of the title of the concern to
the land, is not responsible for doing so. Therefore, generally, a certificate
should be obtained from the legal adviser of the client confirming the
validity of his title to the land. The auditor should, however, verify that the
conveyance deed has been duly registered as required by section 17(1)
of the Registration Act, 1908 also that particulars required to be endorsed
thereon according to section 58 of the same Act have been duly made
and verified. He should, in addition, generally ascertain that prima facie
the title of the client does not appear to be defective.
If the property is mortgaged, the title deed would be in the possession of
the mortgagee or his solicitors. A certificate to this effect should be
obtained from them. It should also be ascertained whether there is any
211
second or subsequent mortgage. If ground rents, outstanding for
recovery, are included in the Balance Sheet as an asset, the auditor must
examine the counter parts of leases granted and also verify that the
ground rents which were outstanding for recovery on the date of the
Balance Sheet have since been recovered. If there has been any sale of
land or building, it should be verified that he amount of profit or loss
resulting on sale has been correctly adjusted in the accounts.
The cost of buildings, as is entered in the books, should be depreciated
at appropriate rates, depending upon the quality of their structure and the
use which is being made of them. The cost of fittings and fixtures to the
building should be adjusted separately in the account from the cost of
buildings, since these suffer higher rate of wear and tear than the brick
and mortar structure and therefore, have to be depreciated at a higher
rate.
If the values of land and buildings are not separately recorded in the
books of account, the same should be separated for purposes of
calculation the amount of deprecation. This should be done with the
assistance of a valuer, unless the same can be achieved on the basis of
some documentary evidence available in the record.
Since buildings are continually repaired and there is only a thin margin of
differentiation between the expenditure of their improvement and that on
repairs, it is necessary for the auditor to scrutinise closely the
expenditure on repairs so as to exclude from its expenditure that could
legitimately be considered to have added either to the life or the utility of
the asset. Such an expenditure should be added to their cost while the
amount incurred on current repairs is written off.
It is not customary to write up the book values of land and buildings even
though their market values have increased but, where this has been
done it will be necessary for the auditor to verify that the appreciation
adjusted has been disclosed as required by the law. On the same
consideration, no notice need be taken of any fall in the market value of
such an asset until the same has crystallized by the asset being sold.
The land holding in the case of real estate dealer will be a current asset
and not a fixed asset. The same should, therefore, be valued at cost or
market value whichever is less. The amount of profit or loss arising on
sale of plots of land by such a dealer should be verified as follows:
212
(i) Each property account should be examined from the beginning of
the development with special reference to the nature of charges so
as to find out that only the appropriate cost and charges have been
debited to the account and the total cost of the property has been
set off against the price realized for it.
(if) This basis of distribution of the common charges between different
plots of land developed during the period, and basis for allocation
of cost to individual properties comprised in a particular piece of
land should be scrutinized.
(lit) If land price lists are available, these should be compared with
actual selling prices obtained. And it should be verified that
contracts entered into in respect of sale have been duly sanctioned
by appropriate authorities.
(iv) Where part of the sale price is intended to reimburse taxes or
expenses, suitable provisions should be maintained for the purpose.
(v) The prices obtained for various plots of land sold should be
checked with the pian map of the entire tract and any discrepancy
or unreasonable price variations should be inquired into. The sale
price of different plots of land should be verified on a reference to
certified copies of sale deeds executed.
(vi) Out of the sale proceeds, provision should be made for the
expenditure incurred on improvement of land, which so far has
been accounted for.
FURNITURE & FIXTURES
5.2 AUDIT OF LIABILITIES
OUTSTANDING EXPENSES
Outstanding Expenses:
i) Obtain the list of outstanding expenses classified by nature of
expenses.
11) Compare current year’s outstanding expenses with that of the
previous year and enquire the material variations if any.
iii) Verify carefully the estimates of outstanding expenses.
iv) Examine the documentary evidence supporting the outstanding
expenses.
213
v) See that the usual outstanding expenses are paid of by the time of
audit.
vi) Make sure that provision has been made for all the usual
outstanding, e.g. last Salary, wages, rent etc
v) Examine the correspondence, minute book, etc.
vi) Verify the service contracts made by the company and see that all
outstanding arises have been provided for
ix) See that outstanding expenses have been disclosed in the balance
sheet under liabilities.
BILLS PAYABLE:-
Bills Payable
These are acknowledgements of debts payable. For their verification, it is
necessary to see that bills paid have been cancelled and the liability in
respect of those outstanding has been correctly ascertained and
disclosed.
The steps involved in their verification are :
,
(a) Vouch payments made to retire bills on their maturity or earlier and
confirm that the relevant bills have been duly cancelled.
(b) Trace all the entries in the Bills Payable Book into the Bills Payable
Account to confirm that the liability in respect of the bills has been
correctly recorded.
(c) Reconcile the total of the schedule of bills payable outstanding at the
end of the year with the balance in the Bills Payable Account.
(d) Obtain confirmation from the drawers or holders of the bills in respect
of amount due on the bills accepted by the client that are held by
them.
(e) Verify that the charge, if any created on any asset for the due
payment of bills has been appropriately disclosed.)
6.11.4 Loans (secured and unsecured) •
A loan is usually obtained on the basis of a loan’ agreement. The auditor
should refer to it to ascertain the condition on which the loan has been
obtained for confirming that all the conditions as regards repayments of
214
the loan, payment of interest thereon and provision of security have been
duly complied with. Further, where practicable, he should write to the
party to confirm the balance of loan outstanding at the end of the year. A
loan can be raised only by a competent authority - in the case of a
company by the Board of Directors, in that of a partnership by the
partners acting jointly and it that of proprietor concern by the proprietor
himself. In the case,of a company there may exist restrictions on the
loans being raised in the Memorandum or Articles of Association. The
right of the Board of Directors of a public company or private company
which is subsidiary of the public company, under clause (d) of sub-section
(1) of section 293 of the Companies Act to borrow money is restricted to
the aggregate of the paid up capital of the company and its free reserves.
However, the company in a general meeting can relax such a restriction
by specifying the amount upto which amounts may be borrowed by the
Board of Directors. The deed of partnership in the case of a firm may also
contain restrictions on the amount of loans that the partners can raise.
The auditor should therefore, examine the right of the borrowing authority
to confirm that the loan or loans have been raised in the proper exercise
of the authority vested in the Board of Directors or the partners as the
case may be.
If the loan is secured by a charge on an asset of the company, the
document through which it has been created should be inspected and
particulars of the assets charged should be verified. In the case of a
company, he auditor should further see that particulars of the charge
have been duly entered in the Register of Charges and verify that the
charges have been registered with the Registrar of Companies. It should
further be confirmed that particulars of the charge have been properly
disclosed in the Balance Sheet.
In view of the provisions contained in sub-section (IA) of section 227, it is
necessary for an auditor to find out the purpose or purposes for which the
loans have been raised; also confirm whether these have been utilized
for the specified purpose or for some extraneous purposes.
215
CONTINGENT LIABILITIES
Accounting Standard 4 issued by the ICAI deals with the "Contingencies
and Events occurring after the Balance Sheet Date". According to it "a
contingency is a condition or situation, the ultimate outcome of which,
gain or loss, will be known or determined only on the occurrence or nonoccurrence, of one or more uncertain future events." The regard has to
be to conditions or situation at the balance sheet date , the financial effect
of which is to be determined by future events which may or may not
occur.
The definition clearly envisages that either there may be contingent
losses or contingent gains. As a matter of prudence, contingent gains
need not be accounted for in financial statements since this may result in
the recognition of revenue which may never be realised. Therefore, we
have to consider contingent loss for which corresponding liability should
be accounted for in financial statements. Before discussing the
accounting treatment of contingent losses, let us understand contingent
liabilities in clear terms.
A contingent liability is a possible liability of a presently determinable
amount or one indeterminable which has arisen from past dealings or
actions that may not become a legal obligation in the future. The
uncertainty as to whether there will be any legal obligation distinguishes a
contingent liability from an actual liability. An obligation may be a
contingent liability when the very basis of the obligation is contested. For
example, when a claim is made against a company in respect of
infringement of a patent and the companv does not possess a legitimate
defence, the liability, though the amount of it is uncertain would be an
actual liability, but if the claim is untenable in law, the liability would only
be a contingent liability. Though both of them in actual practice are
described somewhat loosely as contingent liabilities, their natures are
different. In one case, the liability is admitted but its amount is uncertain
while in the other, the very basis of the obligation is denied. There is
another type of contingent liability, as in the case of partly paid shares, or
in respect of contract for capital expenditure wherein there is an
obligation to pay a certain sum of money upon which there will be
acquisition of an asset of corresponding value. Contingent liabilities also
arise when some of the Bills Receivable as discounted or when
guarantees are given for loans granted to the third parties.
From the auditing point of view, different types of contingent liabilities are
divided into two broad categories, one in respect of which a provision has
been made and the other for which there is no provision. AS 4 provides
guidance in respect of circumstances when provision has to be made for
216
contingent losses. It states that the amount of a contingent loss should be
provided for by a charge in the statement of profit and loss if :
(a) it is possible that at the date of the financial statements events
subsequent thereto will confirm that (after taking into account any
related probable recovery) an asset has been impaired or a liability
has been incurred as at that date ; and
(b) a reasonable estimate of the amount of the resulting loss can be
made.
If disclosure of contingencies is required by following above
considerations, then, the following information should be provided:
(a) The nature of contingency;
(b) The uncertainty which may affect the future outcome;
(c) An estimate of the financial effect or a statement that such an
estimate cannot be
Made; The Companies Act, 1956 requires disclosure of following
liabilities by way of a note:
(1) Claims against the company not acknowledged as debts.
(2) Uncalled liability on shares partly paid.
(3) An ears of fixed cumulative dividend.
(4) Estimated amount of contracts remaining to be executed on capital
account and not provided for.
(5) Other money for which the company is contingently liable.
The amount of any guarantees given by the company on behalf of
directors or other officers of the company shall be stated and where
practicable, the general nature of each such contingent liability, if material
shall also be specified.
The apprehended liabilities aforementioned usually are not easy to
ascertain unless a comprehensive knowledge in regard to the working of
the business is acquired from a study of the Minute Book of Directors,
files of correspondence with legal advisers and on collection of
information from the officials of the company in regard to indisposed
217
claims and legal actions pending against the company.
218
8
INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY AUDIT
STRUCTURE
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Qualification Of An Auditor
8.2 Disqualification Of Auditors
8.3 Appointment Of First Auditors
8.4 Appointment Of The Subsequent Auditor
8.5 Removal Of Auditor
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit the students will be able to
• Know about the Qualifications of an auditor
• Understand the Disqualifications of an Auditor
• Explain how to appoint the first auditor
• Know the rules and regulations related to removal of an
auditor
8.1 QUALIFICATION OF AN AUDITOR
The provision regarding qualification of auditor is governed by
Section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956
Sec 226(1) states
• A person will be qualified for appointment as an auditor of a
company (public or private) only if he is a Chartered Accountant
within the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949
• The same section also provides that a firm of Chartered
Accountants will be qualified for appointment as the auditor of a
company in its firm name provided all the partners practicing in
India are qualified for appointment
• In case of the firm being appointed as auditor, any practicing
partner may act in the name of the firm.
8.2 DISQUALIFICATION OF AUDITORS
The provision regarding disqualification of auditor is governed by
section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956.
1. Section 226(3)
The following persons are not qualified for appointment as auditors
of a company:
a) A body corporate an officer or employee of the company
219
b) A partner or employee of an officer or employee of the company
c) A partner or employee of an officer or employee of the company
d) A person who is indebted to the company for more than Rs.
1000
OR
A person who has given any guarantee or provided any security
in connection with the Indebtedness of any third person to the
company for more than Rs. 1000.
e) A person holding any security (a security would mean an
instrument carrying voting rights) of that company after a period
of one year from the date of commencement of the Companies
(Amendment) Act, 2000.
2. Section 226(4)
A person is not eligible for appointment as an auditor of any
company if he is disqualified from acting as auditor of that
company’s subsidiary or holding company or of any other
subsidiary of the same holding company and vice- versa.
3. Section 226(5)
If an auditor after his appointment, becomes subject to any of the
disqualification mentioned in section 226(3) and section 226(4), he
shall be deemed to have automatically vacated his office.
8.3 APPOINTMENT OF FIRST AUDITORS
The main points regarding appointment of the First Auditors of a
company are given in Section 224(5):
1. The first auditors of a company can be appointed by the board
of directors within one month of the date of registration/
incorporation of the company by means of a resolution.
2. The auditors so appointed shall hold office until the conclusion
of the first Annual General Meeting.
3. If the Board of Directors fails to appoint the First Auditor within
one month, the company in a general meeting is empowered to
make the appointment.
4. The auditors so appointed by the Board of Directors may be
removed by the company at a general meeting which may
appoint any other auditor.
5. An auditor cannot be appointed as First Auditor simply because
his name has been stated in the Articles of Association.
6. The First Auditor need not sent an intimation by the company of
their appointment and the First Auditor are themselves not
required to inform the registrar of Companies about their
acceptance/ refusal of such an appointment.
220
8.4 APPOINTMENT OF THE SUBSEQUENT AUDITOR
The main points regarding appointment of Subsequent Auditor of a
company are given below:-
1. Section 224(1) empowers the shareholders to appoint auditor at
each Annual General Meeting by means of a resolution.
2. Upon an auditor being appointed in the Annual General
Meeting, the company is to give intimation thereof to the
concerned auditor within seven days of the appointment.
3. On receipt of the intimation from the company about his
appointment, the auditor is required to send a written
communication to the concerned Registrar of Companies within
30 days in form no.23B indicating whether he has accepted or
declined the appointment.
4. The auditor so appointed shall hold the office from the
conclusion of one Annual General Meeting to the conclusion of
the next Annual General Meeting.
5. The auditor will be guilty of professional misconduct if at any
time he accepts audit more than the specified numbers of audit
assignments of the company u/s 224 of the Act.
8.5 REMOVAL OF AUDITOR
1. The first auditor appointed by the directors may be removed by
the shareholder in the first Annual General Meeting. Such
Auditors can even be removed from their office before the expiry
of their term of office without the permission from the Central
Government.
2. In any other case, auditor can be removed only by the company
in General Meeting after obtaining previous approval from the
Central Government
3. An Auditor, on the expiry of the terms of his office may not be
reappointed and thus removed from his office.
a) Resolution requiring special notice (of fourteen days) should
be passed at the general meeting [Sec. 225(1)].
b) On receipt of notice of resolution, company shall send copy
of the notice to the retiring auditor [Sec. 225(2)].
c) On receipt of notice, retiring auditor can send written
representation of a reasonable nature to the company which
should be informed to the members. Normally company has
to circulate such representation to the shareholders, unless it
is received too late. A notice of resolution also should be
circulated, stating a fact of such a representation. If the
representation in not circulated for being received too late or
because of the default of the company, auditor can insist it to
be read at the meeting. [Sec. 225(3)].
d) However, company or any other person like directors or
shareholders have a right to file a petition with Company Law
221
Board (CLB) to refrain the
e) auditor from making such representation, if it is to secure
needless publicity or is defamatory. In such a case, on the
direction of the CLB, copies need not be sent or read at the
meeting [Sec. 225(3)]. These provisions apply to removal of
the auditors appointed by Central Government also.
4. The other relevant provisions are that if a new auditor is
appointed, the company should within 7 days, inform the new
auditor. The new auditor should inform the Registrar within one
month of such intimation received about his decision and he
should also communication with the retiring auditor in this
matter, is he accepts the post
222
9
COST ACCOUNTING
STRUCTURE:
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Evolution of Cost Accounting
9.3 Definitions
9.4 Cost Accounting Profession in India
9.5 Objectives of Cost Accounting
9.6 Importance of Cost Accounting
9.7 Advantages of Cost Accounting
9.8 Financial Accounting
9.9 Methods of costing – Types of Costing
9.10 Essentials of a good costing system
9.11 Distinction between Cost & Financial Accounting
9.12 Elements of Cost
9.13 Summary
9.14 Books Recommended
9.15 Terminal Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of studying this unit are.
• To understand the evolution and definitions of costing.
• To study the objectives of cost accounting.
• To distinguish between Cost accounting and Financial Accounting.
223
• To classify cost in different ways.
• To understand the elements of cost accounting systems.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern business needs information about activities to be planned
for the future. A major function of management is decision-making. It
requires selection of an optimal course of action from among a set of
alternatives. Costing techniques play an important role in gathering and
analyzing revenue and cost data. It also helps to control business results
and to make a proper appraisal of the performance of persons working in
an organisation. Cost accounting also helps in acquiring Plant and
Machinery. Adding or dropping Product, make or buy decision, special
pricing of products and replacement of assets.
9.2 EVOLUTION OF COST ACCOUNTING
The widespread interest in the subject of cost accounting could be
said to have developed with Industrial Revolution which started in 1760.
As mechanization, simplification, standardisation and mass production
followed in the wake of factory system, costing had to keep pace with
these developments. Until the 18th century, cost accounting was in the
domain of the engineer. Its integration with financial accounting began
when accountants started to audit the cost records. Under the influence of
financial accountant, cost accounting came to be viewed almost
exclusively as a means of inventory valuation and profit measurement. It
has grown only in the 20th century as an independent discipline.
Cost accounting has found to be of assistance to management, in
compiling and providing requisite statistical data. It has developed rapidly
and assisted management in providing valuable information to take
appropriate decision in time. Cost Accounting throws light on the
excessive waste of materials, inefficient labour operations, idle machinery
and many other similar factors, which are responsible for reduction in the
profit of the business activities. Managements found that cost accounting
could render valuable assistance in planning, controlling and coordinating
the activities.
224
9.3 DEFINITIONS
(a) Costing:
The institute of Cost & Management Accountants (ICMA) London
has defined costing as the ascertainment of costs, costing includes
techniques and processes of ascertaining costs.
(b) Cost Accountancy:
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants (ICMA)
London has defined Cost Accountancy as the “application of costing and
cost accounting principles, methods and techniques to the science, art
and practice of cost control and ascertainment of profitability as well as
presentation of information for the purpose of management decision
making”. Accordingly Cost Accountancy includes costing, cost accounting,
budgetary control, cost control and cost audit. Cost accounting refers to
the process of determining and accounting the cost of some particular
product or activity. It also includes classification, analysis and infers
production of costs.
(c) Cost Accounting:
The I.C.M.A. London defines Cost Accounting as “the process of
accounting for cost from the point at which expenditure is incurred or
committed to the establishment of its ultimate relationship with cost
centers and cost units”.
In practice, costing, cost accounting and cost accountancy are
often used interchangeably. Costing refers to ascertainment of costs,
accumulation and measurement of cost of activities, processes, products
or services. Cost data are used to prepare the statement of cost or cost
sheet. Cost Accounting is a specialized branch of accounting which
assists management to control costs and to create an awareness of the
importance of cost to wells- being of the business organization.
225
Systematic and useful cost data and reports are required to manage the
business to achieve its objectives.
(d) Cost Centre:
Cost Centre is a location, person or an asset for which costs can
be ascertained and used for the purpose of cost control. It is an
organizational segment or area of activity used to accumulate costs.
Different types of cost centers used in a manufacturing organization are
personal cost canters, impersonal cost centers, operation cost centers
and process centers.
(e) Cost Units;
A cost unit is a unit of quantity of product or service in relation to
which cost may be ascertained. There should be a unit of activity for
proper ascertainment of cost. Every organization has a unit of its own for
measurement of raw materials, and finished products. Once the unit of
activity is decided it becomes a cost unit for the cost accountant. The cost
units should be suitable to the organization. The following are the
examples of cost units in different industries :-
Nature of Industry Cost Unit.
Cement Tonne
Cable Metre
Power Kilowatt/ hour
Hospital Per bed
Paper Ream
226
9.4 COST ACCOUNTING PROFESSION IN INDIA
To develop the Cost and Management Accountancy profession,
the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India was set up at
Calcutta in 1944. It got statutory recognition in 1959.It has more that two
chapters through India and around six overseas centres.
The Department of Company Affairs issued a specific order under
section 233 (1) of the Companies Act, 1956 to a particular company to get
its cost records audited. The order indicates the product and the period to
be covered. The cost audit is conducted by a Cost Accountant holding a
Certificate of Practice from the Institute. The Department of Company
Affairs of the Government of India also prescribed Cost Accounting
Records & Rules under Section 209(1) (d) of the Companies Act, 1956.
Accordingly, more than 35 industries are required to maintain Cost
Accounting records relating to Production, Work in Progress, Finished
Goods, Utilities, Repairs and Maintenance, Wages and Salaries
Overheads and Sales.
9.5 OBJECTIVES OF COST ACCOUNTING
The cost accounting objectives are normally used to denote
activities for which costs are required to be determined separately. The
activities may be function, organizational sub-division, contract or other
work unit for which data are required. There is direct relationship among
information needs of management, cost accounting objectives and
techniques and tools used for analysis in cost accounting. Thus, cost
accounting has the following objectives1. To determine product costs.
2. To facilitate planning and controlling of regular business activities.
3. To supply information for short and log run decisions.
227
9.6 IMPORTANCE OF COST ACCOUNTING
Cost Accounting is very important for a commercial organization. It
is also useful for any other organization. It helps management in different
fields one of such fields is presentation of information in the most useful
manner. Cost Accounting is used to measure, analyse or estimate the
costs. Profitability and Performance of individual products, departments
and other segments of an organization, for either internal or external or
both and to report to the interested parties. Cost Accounting concerns
itself with the synthesis and analysis of costs. Its purpose in the modern
days is to help management in the twin functions of decision- making and
control. Thus, Cost Accounting is not simply cost finding but it is advising
management, planning and control of organization and business
operations. The Companies Act, also provides that certain companies
have to maintain cost accounting records and accounts and conduct the
audit of cost accounts.
9.7 ADVANTAGES OF COST ACCOUNTING
A cost accounting system when installed will result in the
following:-
i) Cost Accounting reveals areas where materials were used
excessively, labour operated inefficiently and expenses incurred
exorbitantly.
ii) It suggests cost reduction programme. A continuous cost jointly with
technical personnel seeking areas for effecting cost reduction brings
beneficial results.
228
iii) Cost account locates the specific causes for the variations in profit.
It points out the losing product or operations. It indicates reasons for
loss and suggests remedial measures in time.
iv) It provides suitable data to management to select best alternatives.
It may be to decide whether to buy or make a part, to operate
Machine X or Y, to accept or reject an order below cost.
v) Cost accounts give actual cost for price fixation. True demand and
supply play vital role in fixing price. But cost is an essential guide
here.
vi) It provides vital data to till in tenders. Tenders filled in with the help
of marginal costing technique are successful.
vii) Standard costing and budgetary control aid maximum efficiency.
viii) Cost comparison helps cost control. Such comparison may be
between different periods of the same department or comparable
operations of different units.
ix) Cost data are useful to outside agencies like Government,
Tribunals, etc., for taking decisions on tariff regulations, settlement
of disputes, variations in wage levels etc.
x) It provides idle capacity cost to assist overcoming capacity utilization
crises.
xi) Marginal costing technique helps to take suitable short term
decisions in times of trade depression.
xii) Cost Accounting lays down cost centres and responsibility centres
which ensures proper organizational structure.
229
xiii) Cost accounting provides for perpetual inventory system. This
enable inventory control and preparation of short term profit and loss
accounts.
xiv) Cost of closing stock of raw materials, work in progress and finished
products are readily available in cost records.
All organizations will not get all the advantages listed above.
However, an efficiently operated costing system with full support from
management can reap most of them.
9.8 FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING
Financial Accounting is concerned with providing information to
external users such as shareholders, creditors, labour unions,
government authorities etc., It is oriented towards the preparation of
financial statements i.e. Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet which
summarises the results of operations for selected periods of time and
show the financial position at particular dates. It follows Generally
Accepted Accounting Principle. Financial accounting accounts for money.
Since, financial statements are general purpose in nature and only one
set of accounts is prepared and sent to all, financial accounting suffers
from the following limitations.
Limitations of Financial Accounting -
1. Financial accounting is mostly historical in nature.
2. It does not provide detailed cost information for different jobs.
processes or departments.
3. It is difficult to know the behaviour of cost as expenses are not
classified into fixed and variable.
4. It does not possess an adequate system of standards to evaluate
the performance of departments and employees.
5. It does not provide necessary information to management in taking
important decisions like pricing, special orders, alternative etc.
6. Annual reporting is a rule in financial accounting.
230
9.9 METHODS OF COSTING AND TYPES OF
COSTING
Several methods or types of costing have been designed to suit the
needs of individual business conditions.
There are two main methods of costing; these are :
Job Costing and Process Costing.
All other costing methods are either variants of these two methods or
techniques designed for particular purposes, for specific occasions and
for specific conditions.
9.9.1 Job Costing : This method is suitable for ascertaining cost of a
job, a specific order or a batch of finished products.
Here the cost unit is a job comprising a specific quantity
manufactured as per an order. A job may be small or big. It may be as per
a customer’s order of for stock for eventual sale. Other variations of job
costing are given below: -
i) Contract Costing :- This method is used by contractors for
construction of building bridges etc. Here the unit of cost is a
contract. The period of this contract normally extends beyond the
current financial years.
ii) Batch Costing :- This method is applicable to manufacturers
producing economic batches of components for subsequent
assembling. Large engineering firms use this method. Here the
costing is done for a batch of the components instead of a single
component.
iii) Multiple Costing :- This is used in large industries such as
automobile, aero plane industries etc., Here the cost of
231
components is calculated separately. Each component has a job
sheet. Later, these are assembled to complete the cost of
aeroplane or other finished product.
9.9.2 Process Costing :- This method is used by industries
manufacturing products by continuous processes. Cost is ascertained for
a period by process or department. As distinct from job costing, time is
given more importance here. Hence, this is also called period costing.
Examples of the industries using process costing are chemical industries,
paper making and refineries. Other variants of process costing are:
i) Operation Costing :- Operation Costing is applied where the
production passes through several operations successively before
the final product is made. Wastages may occur in each operation.
Operation costing is used in industries such as box making, shoe
making, toy making industries. Here cost unit is an operation
around which costs are accumulated.
ii) Single or Output or Unit Costing: - This method is applied
where the production is of continuous nature and the final product
is only one or the different grades of same product. Examples of
the industries applying this method are mining industry, quarries
and steel production.
iii) Operation Costing :- This method is applied for ascertaining cost
of service rendered. Examples of industries using this method are
transport services, electricity and boiler house. In transport
services, the unit of cost is a passenger Kilo-meter, or a Kilogram
kilometer.
9.10. ESSENTIAL OF A GOOD COSTING SYSTEM
i) The costing system should fit in the general organisation of the
business. Normally no alternations in the organisation should be
made to facilitate costing system. However, unavoidable changes
could be made in the set up to ensure effective costing system.
232
ii) All relevant technical aspects (such as nature and method of
production, varieties of product ) should be adequately studied for
employing suitable cost control devises.
iii) The size, lay out and organisation of the factory should be
adequately described for the benefit of those operating costing
system.
iv) The procedure required to be followed for purchase, receipt, storage
and issue of materials should be clearly laid down.
v) The methods of wage payment and system of labour control should
be specified.
vi) The norms for appointment and allocation of overhead should be
specified.
vii) Forms and records of original entry should be suitably designed to
ensure economy.
viii) The forms should be got printed. It should contain full instructions.
Persons who use them should be adequately trained to ensure
accuracy and relevance of the data written on the forms.
ix) An examiner should check and sign every entry in the forms.
x) Responsibility for preparing and sending the cost reports to various
levels of management at periodical intervals should be fixed and
necessary instructions in this regard issued.
xi) Full co-operation from all concerned in the management should be
enlisted. The resistance from the employees should be minimum.
233
xii) Cost of administering the costing system should be commensurate
with the benefit available there from.
xiii) Design the system suitably to enable exercising cost control
effectively.
xiv) The cost accounts and the Financial accounts should be interlocked.
Alternatively, result of the two sets of accounts should be reconciled.
xv) Frequency, regularity and promptness in the presentation of cost
reports should be ensured.
9.11 DISTINCTION BETWEEN COST AND FINANCIAL
ACCOUNTING :
Cost Accounting is a close follower of financial accounting. It is not
independent of financial accounting. Though there are common grounds
between the two, the important differences are given below:-
i) Reporting:- The major objective of financial accounting is external
reporting whereas the focus of cost accounting has been
essentially internal i.e. management.
ii) Flexibility :- Financial accounting is mostly historical or after the
event while cost accounting is much more flexible and open
minded and includes in both retrospective and anticipatory
calculations.
iii) Nature :- Financial accounting classifies, records, presents and
interprets in terms of money transactions whereas cost accounting
classifies, records, presents and interprets in a significant manner
the material, labour and overhead costs involved in manufacturing
and selling each product.
iv) Financial accounting uses Generally accepted Accounting
Principles while recording, classifying summarizing and reputing
business transactions whereas cost accounting is not bound to
234
use GAAP and it can use any technique or practice which
generates useful information.
v) Time Span : Financial accounting data are developed for a
definite period, usually a year, half year or a quarter, but cost
accounting reports and statements can be prepared whenever
needed.
vi) Accounting Method :- Financial Accounting follows the double –
entry system for recording, classifying and summarizing business
transactions . The data under Cost Accounting can be gathered for
small or large segments or activities of an organisation and
monetary as well as other measures can be used for different
activities in the organisation.
9.12. ELEMENTS OF COSTS.
9.12.1 Composition of Elements of Costs:-
A manufacturing organisation converts raw materials into finished
products. For that it employs labour and provides other facilities. While
compiling production cost, amount spent on all these are to be
ascertained. For this purpose, cost are primarily classified into various
elements. This classification is required for accounting and control.
The elements of cost are (i) Direct material (ii) Direct labour (iii)
Direct expenses and (iv) Overhead expenses.
The following chart depicts the broad headings of costs and this
acts as the basis for preparing a Cost sheet.
235
Elements of cost
Materials Labour Other Expenses
Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Direct Indirect
Overheads
Factory Administrative Selling & Distribution
Break up of cost sheet
CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS
236
9.12.2 Prime Cost :
The aggregate of Direct material cost, Direct labour and Direct
expenses is termed as Prime Cost. Direct costs are traceable to products
or jobs.
9.12.3 Direct materials
It includes cost of materials consumed in the production process
which can be directly allocated to the cost center. Direct material can be
identified and charged to the finished product.
Examplesi) Material specially purchased for a specific job or process.
ii) Materials passing from one process to another.
iii) Consumption of materials or components manufactured in the same
factory.
iv) Primary packing materials.
v) Freight, insurance and other transport costs, import duty, octroi duty,
carriage inward, cost of storage and handling are treated as direct
costs of the materials consumed.
In certain cases direct materials are used in small quantities and it
will not be feasible to ascertain their costs and allocate them directly. For
instance, nails used in the manufacture of chairs and tables, glue used in
the manufacture of toys. In such cases cost of the total quantity consumed
for the period will be treated as Indirect costs.
237
9.12.4 Direct Labour
This includes the amount of wages which can be easily identified
and directly charged to the product. These are the costs for converting raw
material into finished products. Wages paid to workers for operating Lathe
machines, Drilling machines etc. in a Tool room are Direct wages.
9.12.4 Direct Expenses
This includes expenses other than materials and labour which can
be easily identified with a particular product or process. For example.
Excise duty expenses. Indirect costs cannot be easily identified with a
particular products or process.
9.12.6 Indirect materials
Materials which cannot be traced as part of the finished products
are known as Indirect materials.
Example :
a. Consumable stores such as lubricants, cotton wastes, tools etc.
b. Materials of insignificant value not worthwhile to ascertain the cost
separately, for charging directly such as nails (for making chair)
glues (for making toys). These materials can be apportioned to or
absorbed by cost centres or cost units arbitrarily.
Indirect labour is the cost which cannot be directly charged or
identified to the finished product. Indirect labour is apportioned to or
absorbed by cost centres or cost units suitably.
Examples:
a. Salary to Store- keeper
b. Wages to Time – keeper
9.12.7 Indirect Expenses :
These are general expenses not incurred for any particular product
or service and not chargeable to the products directly.
238
Examples :
a. Rent,Rates and Insurance of Factory
b. Power,lighting,heating repairs, telephone expense, printing and
stationery.
Overheads can be sub-divided into following main groups.
1. Factory or Works Overheads: Also known as manufacturing or
production overheads it consists of all costs of indirect materials, indirect
labour and other indirect expenses which are incurred in the factory.
Examples :
Factory rent and insurance. Depreciation of Factory building and
machinery.
2. Office or Administration overheads: All indirect costs incurred by
the office for administration and management of an enterprise.
Examples:
Rent, rates, taxes and insurance of office buildings, audit fees, directors
fees.
3. Selling and Distribution overheads: These are indirect costs in
relation to marketing and sale.
Examples :
Advertising, Salary and Commission of sales agents, Travelling
expenses of salesmen.
Correct Sequence:
239
Direct Materials
+
Direct Labour Prime Cost (main cost of production)
+
Direct Expenses
+
Indirect Materials
+
Indirect Labour Factory Overheads (From raw
materials to finished goods)
+
Indirect Expenses
=
Works cost
+
Indirect Materials
+
Indirect Labour Administrative Overheads
(Management and Administration of enterprise)
+
Indirect Expenses
Indirect Materials
+ Selling and Distribution Overheads
(Delivery from
Indirect Labour warehouse to customer)
+
Indirect Expenses
=
240
Cost of Sales
+
Profit
=
Sales
9.13. SUMMARY
Cost Accounting is the process of accounting for costs from the
point at which expenditure is incurred or committed to the establishment of
its ultimate relationship with cost centre and cost units. Cost accounting
profession got recognition in 1939 in India. It has been made compulsory
for specified manufacturing companies. Cost Accounting has the
objectives of determining Product costs, facilitate planning and control of
regular business activities and supply information for taking short term and
long-term decisions. Cost Accounting is useful in different areas such as
materials, labour, overheads, stock valuation etc.
Financial Accounting is concerned with providing information to
external users. It does not provide detailed cost information for different
jobs, processes or departments. It also does not possess an adequate
system of standards to evaluate the Performance of departments and
employees. There are two major methods of costing- job costing and
process costing. Job costing includes Contract, Batch and Multiple costing.
Costing system should be developed in an organisation to fit in the general
organisation of the business. Cost and Financial Accounting are different
from each other.
9.14 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is cost Accounting? What are its objectives?
2. How does cost accounting help in planning and control of operations
of a business enterprise?
3. Distinguish between Cost Accounting and Financial Accounting
4. What is Financial accounting? What are its limitations?
241
5. What are the advantages of Cost Accounting?
6. What are the essentials of good costing system?
7. What are the various elements of costs?
8. Write short notes on:
a) Cost centres
b) Cost units
c) Costing methods
d) Cost Accounting as a Profession
e) Elements of costs
9.15 BOOKS – RECOMMENDED
1. Principles & Practice of Cost Accounting – N.K.Prasad
2. Wheldons Cost Accounting & Costing Methods – Owler & Brown.
242
10
COST AND COST CLASSIFICATIONS -
COST SHEET
STRUCTURE
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept of cost
10.3 Cost classifications
10.4 Cost Sheet
10.5 Summary
10.6 Books Recommended
10.7 Terminal exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of studying this unit:-
• To understand the concept of cost
• To classify the costs
• To understand the cost sheet
• To understand the elements of cost.
• To prepare the cost sheets.
243
10.1 INTRODUCTION
A manufacturing organisation converts raw materials into finished
products. For the purpose, it employs labour and provides other facilities.
While compiling production cost, amounts spent on all these facilities are
required to be ascertained. Thus, cost ascertainment involves (a)
collection and classification of costs according to cost elements (b) its
allocation or apportionment to cost centres or units (c) choice of an
appropriate method of costing and (d) selection of an appropriate costing
technique. Costs are primarily classified into various elements for
accounting and control.
10.2 CONCEPT OF COST
Cost represents a sacrifice, a foregoing or a release of something
of value. It is reckoned in money and usually appears as payment of
money. It is money outlay for productive factors.
Costs are expenditure incurred in doing something. Costing is the
process of determining the cost of doing something i.e cost of
manufacturing an article, rendering service or performing a function.
Cost is composed of three elements- material, labour and
expenses or overheads. Each of these costs can be further classified as
(a) Direct and (b) Indirect.
Direct costs are costs which can be easily identified with a
particular Product, Process or Department. Indirect costs refers to costs
which cannot be conveniently identified with a particular product. Process
or Department. Indirect costs are common costs like rent, repairs salaries,
which are incurred for the benefit of a number of cost units or cost
centres.
244
10.3 COST CLASSIFICATIONS
Cost items are analysed or grouped according to their common
characteristics which is some independent factor. There are many
objectives of cost classifications depending on the requirements of
management. The different cost classifications are as follows:-
10.3.1 Cost Classification by Elements :
The constituent elements of costs are broadly classified into three
distinct elements i.e. materials, labour and expenses These three
elements of cost can be further grouped into direct and indirect
categories. Direct materials refer to the cost of materials which are
conveniently and economically traceable to specific units of output for
example. Raw cotton in textiles, crude oil in making diesel. The indirect
materials refer to materials that are needed for the completion of the
product but whose consumption with regard to the product is either so
small or so complex that it would not be appropriate to treat it as a direct
material. For example, stationery lubricants, cotton waste etc.
10.3.2 Cost Classification by Function.
A business organisation has to perform several functions such as
Manufacturing, Administration, Selling and Distributing and Research and
Development. Functional classification of cost implies that the business
performs many functions for which costs are incurred. Expenses or Costs
are usually classified by function and grouped under the headings of
Manufacturing, Selling and Administrative costs in measuring net income.
Manufacturing costs are all check costs incurred to manufacture
the products and to bring them to a saleable condition. This includes
direct material, direct labour and indirect manufacturing costs or
overheads. Administration costs are incurred for formulation of policy,
directing the organisation and controlling the activities excluding the cost
of research, development, production, selling and distribution. These
costs include salary of executives, office, staff, office rent, stationery,
postage etc. Selling costs, include the cost of creating and stimulating
demand and getting customers. For example, advertisement, salary and
245
commission to salesmen, packing. Distribution costs include the cost of
warehouse, freight, cartage etc.
Research and Development costs are incurred in the process of
finding out new ideas, new processes by experiments or other means of
putting the results of such experiments on a commercial basis. Functional
classification of cost is important because it provides an opportunity to the
management to evaluate the efficiency of departments performing
different functions in an organisation.
10.3.2 Cost Classification by variability:
Cost can be classified as (i) fixed (ii) variable and (iii) semi -fixed
or semi variable in terms of their variability or changes in cost behaviour
in relation to changes in output or activity or volume of production. Activity
may be indicated in any form such as units of output, hours worked,
sales, etc. The separation of costs into variable and fixed categories is
the most difficult part of the costing operation. Certain costs are easily
identifiable as variable or fixed while other costs can be segregated only
after careful consideration of their nature and an examination of their
behaviour.
i) Fixed costs:
Fixed cost is a cost which does not change in total for a given time
period despite wide fluctuations in output or volume of activity. These
costs must be met by the organisation irrespective of the volume level.
These costs are also known as capacity costs, period costs or stand - by
costs; for example, rent, property taxes, supervisor’s salary, advertising,
insurance etc.
ii) Variable costs:
Variable cost are those costs which vary directly and
proportionately with the output. There is a constant ratio between the
change in the cost and the change in the level of output. Direct materials
and labour are the examples of variable costs. Thus, all these costs which
tend to vary directly with variations in volume of output are variable costs.
However, it must be remembered that variable costs remain the same or
approximately the same in amount per unit of production regardless of
increase or decrease in volume.
246
iii) Semi variable or semi fixed costs:
There is another group of costs in between the fixed and variable
costs. It is semi variable or semi fixed costs. These costs vary in some
degree with volume but not in direct proportion. Such costs are fixed only
in relation to specified constant conditions. Semi fixed costs are those
costs which remain constant upto a certain level of output after which they
become variable. For example: maintenance of building, depreciation of
plant, supervisor’s salary, telephone expenses etc.
10.4 COST SHEET
Cost sheet is a statement prepared to present the detailed costs
of total output during a period. It provides information relating to cost per
unit at different stages of total cost of production. The preparation of cost
sheet is one of the important and primary function of cost accounting.
Cost sheet is not an account. There is a prescribed form for preparation
of cost sheet. A cost sheet is a statement of cost prepared for a given
period of time in such a manner that it indicates various elements of cost
as clearly as possible. The cost sheet is useful in ascertaining the total
cost of production per unit, formulation of production plan, fixing up the
selling price and minimize the production cost. Sometimes standard cost
data are provided to facilitate comparison with the actual cost increased.
The preparation of the cost sheet requires understanding of the treatment
of the following items:-
a) Stock of raw materials : The opening and closing stock of raw
materials are to be adjusted with purchase of Raw materials in
order to determine the value of raw materials consumed for the
output produced. Carriage/ Freight inward and Octroi on purchase
etc. also to be added to purchases. This is a part of Prime Cost.
b) Stock of Work in Process – The value of stock of work in
process is a part of Factory cost and therefore, it should be
adjusted with factory overheads. Sale of scrap should be
deducted from the factory overheads in order to determine the
total factory cost.
c) Stock of Finished goods :- Finished goods covers the products
on which factory work has been completed. It is the cost of
completed production. The opening and closing values of finished
goods are to be adjusted with the total cost of production in order
to arrive at cost of sales.
247
10.4.1 Expenses excluded from cost sheet:
There are certain expenses /costs which do not form a part of cost
sheet. Some of these expenses are an apportionment of profit. Examples
of these expenses are -
i) Dividend to shareholders
ii) Income Tax
iii) Interest on loan
iv) Donations paid
v) Capital expenditure
vi) Capital loss on sale of assets.
vii) Commission to Partners / Managing Director
viii) Discount on issue of shares/ debentures
ix) Underwriting commission.
x) Writing of goodwill/ bad debts
xi) Provision for Taxation, Bad Debts or any kind of Fund or
reserves.
10.4.2 Specimen of cost sheet.
The specimen form of a cost sheet is given below:
Cost sheet for the period …..
(Production … Units )
248
Particulars
Total Cost
Rs.
Cost Per
Unit
Rs.
Direct Materials
Raw Materials
Opening stock Materials :
Add : Purchases …..
Add : Carriage / Freight Inward -----------------
Less : Closing stock -----------------
Cost of materials consumed
Direct Labour
Direct Expenses
Prime cost
Factory overheads
Add: Work in Progress (Opening )
Less : Work in Progress (Closing )
Works /Factory cost
Office and administrative expenses
Cost of Production (of goods produced)
Add: Op. Stock of finished goods
Less closing of finished goods
cost of production (of goods sold)
Selling & Distribution expenses
Cost of Sales
--------------- ------------
249
Add. Profit (Loss)
Sales
10.4.3 Elements of Total Cost
Costs are classified under different heads which represent the
successive stages through which the cost flow.
i) Prime Cost
Prime cost is the basic cost of any product. It comprises of those
expenses which could be traced directly to it. The prime cost consists of
cost of direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses. Direct
expenses include special expenses which can be identified with product
or job and are charged directly to the product as part of the prime cost.
For example cost of hiring special plant or machinery, cost of special
moulds, design or patterns, Architect’s fees, Royalties, License fees etc.
ii) Work cost:
Works cost of a Product consists of prime cost plus the portion of
works or factory expenses chargeable against the Production. Works or
factory expenses include, indirect materials indirect labour and indirect
expenses. Indirect materials refer to those materials that are needed for
the completion of the product but the consumption of these materials is
either so small or complex that it would not be appropriate to treat it as
direct materials. These are supplies that cannot be conveniently and
economically charged to a specific unit of output. For example, lubricants,
cotton waste, works stationery etc.
Indirect labour is that labour which does not affect the construction
or the composition of the finished product. This is the labour cost of
production related activities that cannot be associated with or
conveniently traced to specific product through physical observation. For
example, Foremen’s salary and salary of employees engaged in
maintenance or service work. Indirect expenses covers all expenditure
incurred by the manufacturer from the time of production to its completion
as delivery to customer by way of rate of product. Any cannot be allocate
but which can be apportioned to or absorbed by the cost cehtres cost
250
units are known as indirect expenses. These expenses are incurred for
the benefit of more than one product, job or activity and, therefore, must
be apportioned by appropriate bases to the various functions or products.
For example, lighting and heating, maintenance factory manager’s salary,
watch and ward department’s salary etc.
(ii) Cost of Production :
Cost of Production consists of works cost plus an additional
amount of office and administrative expenses. It includes all expenses
connected with the managerial functions such as planning, organizing,
directing, co-ordinating and controlling the operations of the
manufacturing business. For example, office rent, salary, lighting,
stationery, repairs and maintenance and depreciation of office building,
audit fees, legal expenses.
iv) Cost of Sales:
Cost of sales consists of cost of production plus proportionate
selling and distribution expenses of the product. Selling expenses include
the expenses incurred for creating demand for the product such as
advertisement, salaries of salesmen, selling expenses and show room
expenses. Distribution expenses are those expenses incurred in
connection with the delivery of goods to the customers such as packing,
carriage outwards, warehouse expenses.
Illustration -1
Bombay Manufacturing company submits the following information
on 31-3-2010
Particulars Rupees
Sales for the year 2,75,000
Inventories at the beginning of the year-
- Raw Materials 3,000
- Work in Progress 4,000
- Finished Goods 1,10,000
Purchase of materials 65,000
Direct Labour 6,000
251
Inventories at the end of the year -
- Raw Materials 4,000
- Work in Progress 6,000
- Finished Goods 8,000
Other expenses for the year –
Selling expenses 27,500
Administrative expenses 13,000
Factory overheads 40,000
Prepare Statement of cost
Solution :
Bombay Manufacturing Company
Statement of cost for the year ended 31-3-2010
Rs. Rs.
Materials consumed
Opening stock:
+ Purchases
- Closing stock
Direct Labour
Direct Expenses
Prime cost
Factory overheads
+ Work in Progress (beginning )
3,000
110000
113000
4000
40000
4000
44000
109000
65000
6000
180000
252
- Work in Progress (Closing )
Works cost
Administrative expenses
Cost of Production
+ Opening Stock of finished goods
- Closing Stock of finished goods
Selling & Distribution expenses
cost a sales
Profit (Bal. Fig)
Sales
6000 38000
2,18,000
13,000
2,31,000
7,000
2,30,000
8,000
2,30,000
27,500
2,57,500
17,500
2,75,000
Illustration -2
From the following information prepare a statement showing (i)
Prime cost (ii) Works cost (iii) Cost of Production (iv) Cost of Sales (v) Net
profit of X Ltd. which produced and sold 1000 units in June 2009.
Rs.
Opening Stock:
Raw Materials 24,000
Finished goods 16,000
Closing stock:
Raw Materials 20,000
Finished goods 15,000
Purchase of Raw Materials 80,000
Sales 2,00,000
Direct Wages 35,000
Factory Wages 2,000
Carriage Inward 2,000
253
Carriage Outward 1,000
Factory Expenses 4,000
Office Salaries 15,000
Office Expenses 12,000
Factory Rent & Rates 2,500
Depreciation - Machinery 2,500
Bad Debts 1,500
Solution
Ltd.
Cost Statement for June, 2009
Particulars Rs. Total Cost Cost per Unit
Rs. Rs.
Opening stock of materials 24,000
Add: Purchase of materials 80,000
Add: Carriage Inward 2,000
1,06,000
Less: Closing stock of materials 20,000
Cost of Materials consumed 86,000 86.00
Direct Wages 35,000 35.00
(i) PRIME COST 121000 121.00
Factory overheads :
Factory Wages 2,000
Factory expenses 4,000
Factory Rent & Rates 2,500
Depreciation 2,500
11,000 11.00
(II) WORKS COST 1,32,000 132.00
Administrative Overheads :
Office Salaries 15,000
Office Expenses 12,000 27,000 27.00
(iii) COST OF PRODUCTION 1,59,000 159.00
Selling & Distribution Overheads :
254
Carriage Outward 1,000
Bad Debts 1,500
2,500 2.50
TOTAL COST 1,61,500 161.50
Add: Opening Stock of finished goods 16,000
1,77,500
Less: Closing Stock of finished goods 15,000
(iv) Cost of Sales 1,62,500 162.50
(v) Net Profit (Bal.Fig) 37,500 37.50
Sales 2,00,000 200.00
Illustration – 3
NRC Ltd., manufactured and sold 1000 Radio sets during the year
2009. The summarized accounts are given below :
Mfg. / Trading & Profit & Loss A/c
Rs. Rs.
To Cost of Materials 40,000 By Sales 2,00,000
To Direct Wages 60,000
To Manufacturing Exp. 25,000
To Gross Profit 75,000
2,00,000 2,00,000
To Salaries 30,000 By Gross Profit 75,000
To Rent, Rates & Taxes 5,000
To General Expenses 10,000
To Selling & Distribution Exp.
15,000
255
To Net Profit 15,000
75,000 75,000
It is estimated that output and sales will be 1200 Radio Sets in the
year 2010. Prices of Materials will rise by 20% on the previous year’s
level. Wages per unit will rise by 5% Manufacturing expenses will rise in
proportion to the combined cost of materials and wages. Selling and
distribution expenses per unit will remain unchanged. Other expenses will
remain unaffected by the rise in output. Prepare cost sheet showing the
price at which the Radio Sets should be sold so as to earn a profit of 20%
on the selling price.
Solution
COST SHEET
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2009 2010
1000 Radios 1200 Radios
Total Per Unit Total Per Unit
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Direct Materials 40,000 40.00 57,600 48.00
Direct Wages 60,000 60.00 75,600 63.00
PRIME COST 1,00,000 100.00 1,33,200 111.00
Manufacturing Expenses 25,000 25.00 33,300 28.00
WORKS COST 1,25,000 125.00 1,66,500 139.00
Salaries 30,000 30.00 30,000 25.00
256
Rent, Rates Insurance 5,000 5.00 5,000 4.00
General Expenses 10,000 10.00 10,000 8.00
COST OF PRODUCTION 1,70,000 170.00 2,11,500 176.00
Selling & Distribution Expenses 15,000 15.00 18,000 15.00
Cost of Sales 1,85,000 185.00 2,29,500 191.00
Net Profit 15,000 15.00 57,275 48.00
SALES 2,00,000 200.00 2,86,775 239.00
Illustration – 4.:
A factory can produce 60,000 units per year at its 100% capacity.
The estimated cost of production are as under:-
Direct Material - Rs. 3 per unit
Direct Labour - Rs. 2 per unit
Indirect Expenses :
Fixed - Rs. 1,50,000 per year
Variable - Rs. 5 per unit
Semi-variable - Rs.50,000 per year upto 50%
capacity and an extra expenses of
Rs.10,000 for every 25% Increase in
capacity or part thereof.
The factory produces only against order and not for stock. If the
Production programme of the factory is as indicated below and the
management desires to ensure a Profit of Rs. 1,00,000 for the year, work
out the average selling price at which per unit should be quoted:
257
First 3 months of the year 50% of capacity remaining 9 months
80% of the capacity. Ignore selling, distribution and administration
overheads.
Solution :
Particular First 3 months 9 Months Total
(7500 Units ) (3600 Units)
Rs. Rs. Rs.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Direct Material 22500 108000 130500
Direct Labour 15000 72000 87000
---------------- ---------------- --------------------
37500 1,80,000 2,17,500
Add : Indirect Expenses:
Fixed 1: 3) 37500 112500 150000
Variable @ Rs.5 b.u. 37500 180000 217500
Semi –variable
For 3 months 12500 ----- ------
@ Rs.50,000 p.a.
For 9 months
@ Rs.70,000 p.a. -- 525000 65000
-------------- -------------- ---------------
Total Cost 125000 525000 650000
Profit -- - 100000
----------------
Sales 750000
-----------------
Illustration -5
The following figures have been taken from the books of M Ltd. as on
31.12.2009
258
Stock of Raw Materials on 1.1.2009 Rs. 35,000
Stock of Raw Materials on 31.12.2009 Rs. 5,000
Purchase of Materials Rs. 50,000
Factory Wages Rs. 45,000
Factory Expenses Rs. 17,500
Establishment Expenses Rs. 10,000
Finished Stock on 1.1.2009 Rs. 15,000
Finished stock on 31.12.2009 Rs. 7,500
Sales Rs. 2,00,000
The Company manufactured 4000 units during the year 2009. The
company is required to quote for the price for supply of 1000 units during
the year 2010. The cost of material will increase by 15% and factory
labour will cost more by 10% in the year 2010 Prepare a statement
showing the price to be quoted to give the same percentage of net profit
on sales and was realized during 2009.
a) Cost Sheet for the year 2009
Rs. Rs.
Opening Stock of Materials : 35,000
+ Purchases ….. 50,000
85,000
- Closing stock of Materials 5,000
Materials Consumed
Factory Wages
Prime Cost
Factory Expenses
Works Cost
Establishment Expenses
Cost of Production
Add : Opening Stock of finished goods
Less : Closing stock of finished goods
Cost of Sales
Profit
Sales
80,000
45,000
1,25,000
17,500
1,42,500
10,000
1,52,500
15,000
1,67,500
7,500
1,60,000
40,000
2,00,000
20.00
11.25
31.25
4.37
35.62
2.50
38.12
259
b) Statement showing quotation Price for 1000 units
Rs.
Materials (20 x 1000) = 20,000
+ 15% increase 3,000 23,000
Factory wages (11.25 x 1000)= 11,250
10% increase 1,125 12,375
Prime Cost 35,375
Factory Expenses (4.375 x 1000) 4,375
Works Cost 39,750
Establishment Expenses (2.50 x 1000) 2,500
Total Cost 42,250
Profit (20% on Sale i.e., 25% of Cost) 10,563
Sales 52,813
Note : Percentage of Profit on sales earned during the year 2002 is 20%
=
4000 100 20%
2000 = = x
Illustration – 6.
In a factory two types of T.V sets are manufactured i.e black &
white + colour. From the following particulars prepare a statement
showing cost and profit per T.V Set sold. There is no opening or closing
stock.
B & W Rs. Colour Rs.
Materials 273000 10,80,000
Labour 156000 6,20,000
Works overhead is charged at 60% of Prime cost and Office
overhead is taken at 20% at Works cost. The selling price of B & W is
Rs.60,00 and that of colour is 10000. During the period 200 B & W and
400 colour T.V. sets were sold. The selling expenses are Rs. 50 per
T.V.Set.
260
Solution
B) Statement of Cost and Profit
Particulars B & W Colour
Rs. Rs. Per Unit
Materials 273000 10,80,000 2700
Labour 156000 6,20,000 1550
Prime Cost 429000 17,00,000 4250
Add : Work Overheads 257400 10,20,000 2550
(60% of Prime Cost )
Works Cost 686400 27,20,000 6800
Add : Office overheads 137280 5,44,000 1360
(20% of Works cost)
Cost of Production 823680 32,64,000 8160
Add : Selling Expenses 10000 20,000 50
Cost of Sales 833680 32,84,000 8210
Profit (Bal. Fig) 366320 7,16,000 1790
Sales 1,20,000 40,00,000 10,000
261
10.5 SUMMARY
Cost is a resource sacrificed or forgone to achieve a specific
objective. It is a monetary amount that is paid to acquire goods or
services. Costing is the process of determining the cost of doing
something. Cost is composed of three elements - materials, labour and
expenses or overheads. Each of these costs can be further classified as
(a) Direct (b) Indirect. Cost can also be classified on the basis of function,
variability and elements. Cost sheet is a statement prepared to present
the detailed cost of total output during a period. It provides information
relating to cost per unit at different stages of the total cost of production.
There are certain expenses which are not considered while preparing the
cost sheet, such as Dividend. Income tax, Interest on loan, Donation paid,
Capital expenditure, Writing off goodwill and Provisions. Prime Cost,
Work Cost, Cost of Production and Cost of sales are the different
elements of costs.
10.6 BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
Cost accounting & Costing methods – Wheldon
Cost Accounting –Jawahar Lal
10.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES:
1. What is cost? What are the different elements of costs?
2. Explain the significance of each of the following cost classifications:
a) Direct and indirect costs
b) Variable and fixed costs
c) Controllable and uncontrollable costs
3. What are the items of expenses which are excluded from cost sheet?
Why?
262
4. The following information is supplied relating to an output for the year
ended 31.12.2009.
Particulars Rupees
Purchase of Raw materials 148000
Direct wages 132000
Rent & Rates 14000
Carriages inward 6000
Stock on 1-1-2009
Raw materials 22000
Work in progress 18000
Finished goods 30000
Stock on 31.12.2009
Raw materials 24000
Work in progress 35000
Finished goods 25000
Factory expenses 18000
Sales 420000
Selling and distribution costs amounted to 75 paisa per unit sold. 25000
units were produced during the year. You are required to prepare cost
sheet showing break –up of costs, total net profit and net profit per unit
sold.
5. A factory produces a standard product. The following information
is given to you from which you are required to prepare a cost
sheet for January, 2009.
Direct materials consumed Rs. 90,000
Direct Wages Rs. 30,000
Other direct expenses Rs. 10,000
Factory overheads – 80% of direct wages
Office overheads – 10% of work cost
Selling and distribution expenses Rs. 2 per unit sold.
263
Units produced and sold during the month 10000.Find out the
selling price per unit on the basis that Profit mark up is uniformly
made to yield a profit of 20% of the selling price. There was no
stock of work in progress at the beginning or at the end of the
period.
6. A toy manufacturer earns an average net profit of Rs.3 per piece
on a selling price of Rs.15 by producing and selling 60,000 pieces
at 60 percent of the potential capacity. The composition of the cost
of sales is :
Direct Materials Rs. 4
Direct wages Rs. 1
Work overhead Rs. 6 (50 per cent fixed)
Sales Overhead Rs. 1 (25 percent variable)
During the current year, he intends to produce the same number
of pieces, but anticipates thata) Fixed expenses will go up by 10 per cent.
b) Direct labour will increase by 20 percent.
c) Direct material cost will increase by 5 percent.
d) Selling price will remain the same.
He obtains an order for a further 20 per cent of his capacity. What
minimum price will you recommend for accepting an order to
ensure the manufacturer an overall profit of Rs.183500?
7. The following particulars are extracted from the works and other
relevant source in respect of a Ltd. Company?
a) Estimated material cost of the job is Rs.25000 and the direct
labour cost is likely to be Rs.5000
b) It will require machining by a German machine for 20 hours
and a Japanese machine for 6 hours.
264
c) The machine hour rates for the German and Japanese
machines are Rs.100 and Rs.150 respectively.
d) The direct wages in all other shops during the last year
amounted to Rs.800000 as against Rs. 180000 of factory
overhead.
e) The factory cost of all other jobs amounted to Rs.375000 as
against Rs.375000 of office expenses.
You are required to make a quotation with 20 per cent profit on
selling price.
265
11
RECONCILATION OF PROFIT AS PER
COST AND FINANCIAL ACCOUNTS
STRUCTURE :
11.0 Objectives :
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Need For Reconciliation
11.0 OBJECTIVES :
Study of this unit will enable you to :
1. Ascertain the difference between Profit as shown by Financial
Profit and Loss Account and Profit appearing in Costing Profit &
Loss Account.
2. Identify and quantify the cost components, which contribute to the
difference in profit figures.
4. Prepare a statement reconciling the two profit figures reported by
financial and cost records.
266
11.1 INTRODUCTION
It is normally assumed that the profit of a business for a given
period is given by the Profit & Loss account made out for that period.
Imagine your surprise, when Profit and Loss Account prepared by
the financial accountant of X Ltd. shows a profit of Rs.4,56,000 for the
year ended 31.03.2009. While the cost accountant has prepared a cost
sheet for the same period and arrived at a profit of Rs.5,12,000. You feel
that one of the figures reported should be wrong, otherwise how could
there be a difference.
However, there is a logical explanation for the difference in the
profit figures and both may be right.
This is because the fundamental assumptions made by the two
accountants for preparing the profit and loss account vary. For example,
Interest on loan will be debited in financial Profit & Loss Account but the
cost accountant will ignore this item as he does not consider this interest
expense as an item of cost. Naturally, in this case, the cost accountant
will report a higher profit than the financial account.
In the following sections we shall see the types of differences and
the items which give rise to these differences.
11.2 NEED FOR RECONCILIATION
The need for reconciliation arises due to the following reasons :
a) To ensure that no income or expenditure item has been omitted and
that there is no under or over recovery of overheads.
267
b) To check the arithmetical accuracy, as well as for the determination
of reason for disagreement between the two results.
c) To know the reason for variation of profit or loss as internal control.
d) To take administrative decisions such as depreciation, stock
valuation and direct expenses.
e) To test the reliability of cost accounts.
REASONS FOR DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN COST AND FINANCIAL
RESULT:-
It is very essential to know the causes, which generally give rise to
disagreement between Cost and Financial Accounts. These are briefly
summarised below:-
Expenses that are not taken into account. The under mentioned
expenses are usually not included in overheads or, for that matter in cost.
(a) Expenses or income of purely financial nature like dividends
received, rent received, cash discount allowed, etc.
(b) Expenses or profits of capital nature like profit or loss on sale of
investments, plant and equipment, etc.
(c) Items not representing actual costs but dependent on arbitrary
decisions of management e.g. an unreasonably high salary to the
managing director, providing for depreciation at a rate exceeding
the economic rate.
(d) Appropriation of profits for dividends, payment of income tax and
transfer to reserves.
268
I) Items recorded in financial books only and not in cost books:
a) Interest received/ paid on Debentures,
b) Interest received and paid on Investment and Bank
loan or overdraft respectively.
c) Interest charged/ paid to debtors /creditors
d) Discount allowed/ received.
e) Provision for discount on debtors/ creditors
f) Bad Debts written off/ bad debts recovered.
g) Discount on issue of shares and debentures.
h) Income tax paid /refund
i) Penalty and fines paid / received
j) Rent received/ paid
k) Loss by fire, natural calamities or theft /damage
recovered.
l) Loss/ profit on sale of fixed assets, investment
m) Cost of share transfer /share transfer fees received.
n) Donation given/received
o) Deferred revenue expenses written off. Such as write
off of :
i. Preliminary Expenses
ii. Discount on Shares/ Debentures
II) Items recorded in cost book only and not in financial books:-
a) Notional rent charges of owned premises
b) Salary of proprietor
c) Interest on proprietors fund
III) Items recorded in both books with different amounts:-
In Cost book and Financial book some item of expenses and
incomes which are treated differently such as -
a) Method of charging depreciation:
In Financial Books depreciation may have been provided, on
Straight Line Method or Written down Value Method whereas in Costing
Book depreciation may have been charged on the basis of Machine Hour
Rate Method. Amounts of depreciation charge in both books are bound to
be different.
b) Under and Over recovered expenses:
269
The expenses in costing books are recorded on the basis of predetermined rates but in financial books they are recorded on actual basis
hence the amount recorded in these two set of books differ.
c) Method of Valuing Stocks:-
It is well known that in Cost Book Stocks are only valued at cost.
But in Financial Books stock are valued either at cost or market price,
whichever is lower.
PROCEDURE FOR RECONCILIATION :-
When there is a difference between the profit/loss shown by cost
accounts and financial accounts the procedure for reconciliation is similar
to that of Bank Reconciliation Statement. For reconciliation following
steps should be considered.
1. Prepare a cost sheet for a particular period and find out costing
profit or loss if it is not given.
2. If financial profit or loss is not given then find out the same by
preparing Trading and Profit and loss account for a period which
corresponds to the cost sheet.
3. Ascertain items which are shown in financial account and not in
cost account.
4. Ascertain items which are shown in cost account only.
5. Calculate difference between expenses recorded in financial
books and the amount of expenses recorded in cost accounts.
6. Reconciliation Statement is to be prepared as on a particular date.
Hence one can start with the figure of profit / loss as per cost
account and arrive at the figure of profit/ loss as per financial
accounts or vice –versa.
270
[Entries which are at variance with each other will appear in
Reconciliation Statement and also entries appearing in only one
set of book (non - common items)
PROFORMA STATEMENT OF RECONCILIATION
1. Starting with financial profit Statement of Reconciliation
Between Financial Profit and Cost Profit For the Year ended
Particulars
Rs Rs
Financial Profit (as per the financial books)
Add Expenses, losses and appropriation debited in
financial books only
Closing stock under valued in Financial Books
Opening Stock over valued in Financial books
Excess depreciation charged in Financial
Books
Expenses under recovered in Cost Books
Income credited only in Cost Books
Less
Income credited only in Financial Books
Closing stock over valued in Financial Books
Opening Stock under valued in Financial
books
Short depreciation charged in Financial Books
Expenses over recovered in Cost Books
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
271
Costing Profit (as per Costing books)
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx xxx
xxx
Statement of Reconciliation Between Financial Profit and Cost Profit For
the Year ended…..
Particulars Rs Rs
Costing Profit (as per the Costing books)
Add Income credited only in Financial Books
Closing stock over valued in Financial Books
Opening Stock under valued in Financial Books
Short depreciation charged in Financial Books
Expenses over recovered in Cost Books
Expenses debited only in Cost Books
Less
Expenses, losses and appropriation debited in
financial books only
Closing stock under valued in Financial Books
Opening Stock over valued in Financial Books
Excess depreciation charged in Financial Books
Expenses under recovered in Cost Books
Income credited only in Cost Books
Financial Profit (as per the financial books )
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
272
Illustration 1 : From the following particulars prepare a reconciliation
statement:-
Rs.
Net Profit as per financial records 154506
Net Profit as per costing records 206880
Works overheads under recovered in costing 3744
Administrative Overheads recovered in excess in costing 2040
Deprecation charged in financial accounts 13440
Depreciation recovered in Cost Accounts 15000
Interest received but not included in Cost Accounting 9600
Obsolescence loss charged in financial records 6840
Income tax provided in financial books 48360
Bank interest credited in financial books 900
Stores adjustment credited in financial books 570
Depreciation of stock charged in financial books 8100
Solution
RECONCILIATION STATEMENT Rs. Rs.
Net Profit as per costing records
Add:
1. Administrative Overheads over absorbed
2. Depreciation excess charged
3. Income not credited in costing -
Interest received 15000
Bank interest 900
Stores adjustment 570
Total
Less
1. Works overheads under recovered
2. Expenses not charged in costing books 9600
3. Income tax provided in Financial Book 48360
4. Depreciation of Stock charged in Financial Book 8100
Net Profit as per financial books
2040
1560
16470
3744
66060
206880
20070
226950
69804
157146
273
Illustration 2 : Following is the Trading and Profit and loss account of a
factory producing a particular unit of a product of which the actual output
is 100000 units.
Trading & Profit and Loss A/c for the year ended 31/12/09
Rs Rs.
To Material
To Wages
To Works Exp.
To Office rent
To Selling & Dist. Exit
To Net Profit
200000
100000
60000
18000
12000
10000
400000
By Sales 400000
400000
The normal output of the factory is 1,50,000 units. Works
expenses are fixed to the extent of Rs.36,000. Office expenses for all
practical purposes are constant, Selling and distribution expenses are
variable to the extent of Rs.6000/- Prepare a cost sheet and reconciliation
statement.
Solution :
(a) COST SHEET
Actual output 1,00,000 units Normal output 1,50,000 units
Per Unit (Rs.) Total (Rs.)
Material 2.00 2,00,000
274
Wages 1.00 1,00,000
-----------------------------------
PRIME COST 3.00 3,00,000
Works expenses
Fixed (2/3 of 36000) = 24000
Variable = 24000 0.48 48,000
------------------------------------
WORKS COST 3.48 348000
*Actual output/ Normal output = 2/3
Proportionate fixed cost are considered
Office Expenses (2/3 * 36000) 0.12 12,000
---------------------------------------
COST OF PRODUCTION 3.60 3,60,000
Selling and Distribution Expenses
Fixed (2/3) = 4000
Variable = 6000 0.1 10,000
-------------------------------------------
COST OF SALES 3.7 3,70,000
Profit 0.3 30,000
-------------------------------------------
Sales 4.00 4,00,000
------------------------------------------
b) Reconciliation Statement
275
Profit shown by Cost Accounts 30,000
Less : 1. Under recovery of Work Expenses 12000
2. Under recovery of Office Expenses 6000
3. Under recovery of Selling Expenses 2000 20000
--------------------------------
Profits shown by Financial Accounts 10,000
--------------------------------
Illustration 3 : The Trading & Profit & Loss account of “A’ Ltd. is as
follows:-
Trading & Profit & Loss Account
To Purchases
Less : Closing Stock
To Gross Profit
To Net Profit
To Direct Wages
25120
4050
53870
------------
75000
10500
By Sales (50000 units
@ of Rs Rs.1.50 each)
By Gross Profit
75000
---------
75000
43870
260
276
To Works Expenses
To Selling Expenses
To Administrative
Expenses
To Depreciation
To Net Profit
12130
7100
5340
1100
20300
------------
56470
By Discount received
By Profit on sale of land
2340
---------
56470
The profit as per cost accounts was only Rs.19,770. Reconcile the
financial and costing profits using the following information :
a) Cost accounts valued closing stock at Rs. 4280
b) The work expenses in the cost accounts were taken at 100% of
direct wages.
c) Selling & administration expenses were charged in the cost accounts
at 10% of sales and 0.10 per unit respectively.
d) Depreciation in the cost accounts was Rs.800
Solution :
RECONCILIATION STATEMENT Rs. Rs.
Profit as per Cost Accounts
Add: 1. Over absorption of selling expenses
2. Discount received
3. Profit on sale of land
Less 1. Difference in valuation of closing
400
260
2340
-----------
200
19770
3000
------------
22770
277
2. Under absorption of Administrative
Exp.
3. Under absorption of Works Exps.
4. Depreciation under changed
Profit as per Financial Accounts
340
1630
300
-----------
2470
-----------
20300
Illustration 4 : From the following Profit & loss account draw up a
Memorandum Reconciliation account showing the Profit as per Cost
Accounts:-
To Office Salaries
To Office Expenses
To Salary to Salesmen
To Sales Expenses
To Distribution Exp.
To Loss on Sale of Machinery
To Fines
To Discount
To Net Profit c/d
To Income Tax
To Transfer to Reserves
To Dividend
To Balance c/d
11282
6514
4922
9304
2990
1950
200
100
17936
55198
8000
1000
4800
4136
17936
By Gross Profit
By Dividend received
By Interest on Bank FD
By Net Profit b/d
54648
400
150
55198
17936
17936
The cost accountant has ascertained a Profit of Rs.19636 as per his
books.
278
Solution :
Memorandum Reconciliation Account :
Dr Cr.
Rs Rs.
To Expenses not debited to
Cost accounts:
Fines
Discount
Loss on sale of Care
Income Tax
Tr. to Reserves
Dividend
To Net Profit c/d
200
100
1950
8000
1000
4800
4136
20186
By Profit as per cost account
By Income not credited in
Cost accounts:
Dividend Received
Interest on Bank FD
19636
400
150
20186
279
Illustration : 5
M/s ESVEE Ltd. has furnished you the following information from
the financial books for the year ended 31st December, 2009.
Particulars Rs.
Materials consumed
Wages
Factory overheads
Administration Overheads
Selling and Distribution overheads
Bad Debts
Preliminary expenses
Opening Stock (500 units at Rs.35/- each)
Closing stock (250 units at Rs.50/- each)
Sales (10250 units)
Interest Received
Rent Received
260000
150000
94750
106000
55000
4000
5000
17500
12500
717500
250
10000
The cost sheet shows the following :
Cost of materials Rs. 26 per unit.
Labour cost Rs. 15 per unit
Factory overheads 60% of Labour cost
Administration overheads 20% of Factory cost
Selling expenses Rs, 6 per unit
Opening Stock Rs. 45 per unit
280
You are required to prepare :
1. Financial Profit & Loss Account
2. Costing Profit & Loss Account
3. Statement of Reconciliation
Solution
A) Financial Books
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31-12-2009
Rs Rs.
To Opening Stock
(500 Units at Rs.35 each)
To Materials consumed
(10000 units)
To Wages
To Gross Profit c/d
To Factory overheads
To Administration c/d
To Selling Expenses
To Bad Debts
17,500
2,60,000
1,50,000
3,02,500
--------------
7,30,000
94,750
1,06,000
55,000
4,000
By Sales (10250 units )
By Closing stock
(250 units
at Rs.50 each)
By Gross Profit b/d
By Interest received
By Rent Provided
7,17,500
12,500
--------------
7,30,000
3,02,500
250
10,000
281
To Preliminary Expenses
To Net Profit
5,000
48,000
---------------
3,12,750
--------------
3,12,750
B) COST SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31.12.2009
Prod. 10000 units
Particulars Total Cost
Rs.
Cost per
Unit Rs.
Material Consumed
Labour
PRIME COST
Factory Overheads (60% of Labour cost)
WORKS COST
Administration overheads
(20% of work cost)
COST OF PRODUCTION
Add : Opening Stock of finished goods
(500 units at (Rs.45/- each)
Less : Closing stock of finished goods (250
units)
Selling Expenses
260000
150000
--------------
410000
90000
---------------
500000
100000
600000
22500
---------------
622500
15000
---------------
607500
61500
26
15
-------------
41
9
------------
50
10
60.
-------------
6
282
COST OF SALES
PROFIT
SALES
---------------
669000
48500
---------------
717500
------------
66
4
-------------
70
C) STATEMENT OF RECONCILIATION AS ON 31.12.2002
Starting Point (Cost Accountant ) Rs. Rs.
Profit as per Cost Accounts
Add: 1. Over recovery of overheads :
Selling expenses
2. Over valuation of stock :
Opening stock
3. Purely financial income:
Interest
Rent
Less : Under recovery of overheads-
4. Factory overheads
5. Administrative overheads
6. Over valuation of stock :
Closing Stock
7. Purely financial expenses:
Bad Debts
Preliminary expenses
6500
5000
250
10000
-----------
4750
6000
2500
4000
5000
-----------
48500
31750
------------
70250
22250
------------
283
Project as be Financial Accounts 48000
Books Recommended
1. Principles & Practice of Cost Accounting – N.K. Prasad
2. Cost Accounting - Jawaharlal
EXERCISES:
1. What is the need for reconciliation of cost and financial accounts?
2. Discuss the main sources of difference between Profit shown by cost
accounts and that as per financial accounts.
3. The following transaction have been extracted from the financial
books of a company.
284
Rs. Units
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sales 250000.00 20000.00
Materials 100000.00
Wages 50000.00
Factory overheads 45000.00
Office & Administrative overheads 26000.00
Selling & Distribution overheads 18000.00
Closing stock:
Finished goods 15000.00
Work in progress 1230.00
Materials 3000.00
Wages 2000.00
Factory overheads 2000.00
7000.00
Goodwill written off 20000.00
Interest on capital 2000.00
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In costing books factory overheads were charged at 100% of
wages, administration over heads were charged at 10% of factory cost
and selling and distribution overheads at the rate of Re.1 per unit sold.
Prepare a statement reconciling the Profit as per cost and financial
accounts.
285
4. The financial Profit and loss Account of a manufacturing company for
the year ended 31st March, 2009 is as follows:-
Rs Rs.
To Materials consumed
To Carriage inwards
To Direct wages
To Works Expenses
To Administration Expenses.
To Selling an Distribution
Expenses
To Debenture
Interest
To Net Profit d
50000.00
1000.00
34000.00
12000.00
4500.00
6500.00
1000.00
15000.00
124000.00
By Sales 124000.00
124000.00
The net profit shown by the cost accounts for the year is
Rs.16.270 Upon a detailed comparison of the two sets of accounts it is
found that (a) The amounts charged in the cost account in respect of
overheads charges are as follows:- Works overhead charges Rs.11,500;
Office overhead charges Rs.4590, Selling and Distribution Expenses
Rs.6,640 (b) No charge has been made in the cost account in respect of
debenture interest. You are requested to reconcile the profits shown by
the two sets of accounts.
5. During the year a company’s profit have been estimated from the
costing system to be Rs.23,063 whereas the financial accounts
prepared by the auditors disclose a profit of Rs.16,624. Given the
following information you are required to prepare a Reconciliation
statement showing clearly the reason for the difference.
286
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended March 3, 2009
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Opening
Stock
Purchases
Closing stock
Direct wages
Factory overheads
Gross Profit
Administration
expenses
Selling expenses
Net Profit
2,47,179
82,154
-----------
3,29,333
75,121
-----------
2,54,212
23,133
20,826
48,329
-----------
3,46,500
9,845
22,176
16,624
-----------
48,645
Sales
Gross profit
b/d
Sundry
Income
3,46,500
-----------
3,46,500
48,329
316
-----------
48,645
287
The costing record shows:
a. a stock ledger closing balance of Rs.78,197
b. a direct wages absorption account of Rs.24,867
c. a factory overhead absorption account of Rs.19,714
d. administration expenses calculated at 3% of the selling price
e. selling expenses are five percent on selling price
f. no mention of sundry income.
Question 6 :
A company’s Trading and Profit and Loss Account was as follows:-
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Opening
Stock
Purchases
Less:
Closing stock
To Direct wages
To Factory Wages
To Gross Profit C/f.
100000.00
80000.00
---------------
180000.00
80000.00
--------------
100000.00
20000.00
15000.00
40000.00
Sales 175000.00
288
Total Rs.
To Administration expenses
To Selling expenses
To Net Profit
--------------
175000.00
--------------
10000.00
15000.00
15000.00
--------------
40000.00
Total Rs.
By Gross
profit
-------------
175000.00
--------------
40000.00
--------------
40000.00
Costing records show the following :-
a. Stock Ledger closing balance Rs.89,000
b. Direct labour Rs.23,000
c. Factory overheads Rs.13,000
d. Administrative overheads and selling expenses each are
calculated at 8 per cent of the selling price.
Prepare costing profit and loss account and the statement of
reconciliation between the profit or loss as per the two accounts.
Question 7:
From the following information you are required to prepare a
statement reconciling the result of Cost Book with Financial Books
Rs.
Net profit as per Financial Books 51,052
Works overhead under recovered in Cost Book 1,001
289
Depreciation charged in Financial Book 13,000
Depreciation charged in Cost Book 14,326
Obsolescence loss charged in Financial Books only 2,021
Income tax provided in Financial Books only 2,626
Interest received but not recorded in Cost Book 3,031
Bank interest debited in Financial Book only 292
Question 8 ;
The following is the Financial Profit and Loss Account of a
company for the year ending 31st March, 2009.
Profit and Loss Account
Rs Rs.
To Purchases
“ Wages
“ Works Expenses
“ Administration
Expenses
“ Selling Expenses
“ Depreciation
“ Net Profit
2,53,000
1,03,000
1,16,000
55,000
68,000
12,000
2,63,000
------------
8,70,000
By Sales (50000 (units
at Rs. 16 each)
By Closing stock
By Interest on
Investments
By Profit on Sale of
building
8,00,000
43,000
3,000
24,000
------------
8,70,000
290
The cost accounts disclosed the following information :-
1. Value of closing stock was Rs.45,000/-
2. Works expenses in cost accounts have been taken at 100% of
wages
3. Selling Expenses in cost accounts have been charged at 10% on
sales.
4. Administration Expenses in cost accounts have been taken at Rs.1
per unit sold.
5. Depreciation shown in cost accounts was Rs.10,000
Prepare a reconciliation statement to reconcile the profit shown as
per cost accounts with the profit shown as per financial accounts.
291
12
MATERIAL, LABOUR AND OVERHEADS
STRUCTURE :
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction to Material
12.2 Storage of Materials
12.3 Issue of Materials
12.4 Inventory Control
12.5 Material Losses
12.6 Storage Records
12.7 Introduction to Labour Control & Documents
12.8 Time Keeping
12.9 Payment of wages
12.10 Idle time
12.11 Introduction to Overtime
12.12 Overheads and classification
12.13 Collection and codification of overheads
12.14 Allocation of overheads
12.15 Books Recommended
12.16 Self Test
292
12.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will help you to
• Identify the characteristics of Material Labour and Overheads.
• Prepare and maintain documents needed for control of these
costs.
• define and distinguish between direct and indirect materials,
purchase, storage and issue of materials.
• Define material control, procedure and documents
• Explain direct and indirect labour, time keeping
• Discuss methods of payments, idle time, overtime
• Define and classify overheads
• Discuss methods of allocation and apportionment of overheads.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Materials and labour are the two major elements of costs. Hence,
the ascertainment and control of these costs are important aspects.
Proper accounting and control over material purchase, consumption and
inventories are important aspects of effective management. Labour is also
an essential factor of production. Therefore, it is necessary to use
different methods of time keeping, time booking, wage payments and pay
roll accounting and treatment of idle time and overtime in cost accounts.
Factory overheads are opening costs of a business enterprise which
cannot be traced directly to a particular unit of output. It is the aggregate
of indirect materials. Labour and expenses.
293
12.2 STORAGE MATERIALS
Materials refer to raw materials used for production, subassemblies and fabricated parts. The term materials and stores are used
in the same sense. However, stores is a wider term and comprises many
other items besides raw materials. It includes tools, equipment’s
maintenance and repairs items, factory supplies, components, jigs,
fixtures etc.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT MATERIALS
Materials can be classified as direct and indirect materials. The
materials which can be easily identified and attributed to the individual
units are known as direct materials.
For example, leather used in manufacture of shoes. These materials form
part of the finished goods. All costs, which are incurred to obtain direct
materials are also known as direct materials for example carriage inward,
octroi etc.
Indirect materials on the other hand, do not form part of the
finished product and cannot be conveniently and accurately allocated to a
particular unit of product. For example, consumable stores, cotton waste,
lubricating oil etc. Cost associated with indirect materials are also
included in the cost of indirect materials. The grouping of materials into
direct and indirect sometimes, become a matter of convenience.
PURCHASE OF MATERIALS
There is a purchase department which carries out the function of
purchases of materials. The purchase manager is responsible for
ensuring the items ordered are of the standard quality, lower cost and
received in time. The purchase procedure vary with different business
firms. The purchase procedure is given below:
294
a) Purchase Requisition:
Purchase requisition is the formal request made by the
storekeeper to the purchase department for giving order of raw materials
or stores. It serves the dual purpose of authorizing the purchase
department to make purchases and provides a record of the description
and quantity of materials required. It also fixes the responsibility of the
department or personnel making purchase requisition.
b) Purchase order:-
After receiving the duly approved requisition, the purchase
department has to place an order with a supplier. It is an offer to buy
certain materials at stated price and terms. For routine purchases, the
order is placed through established supplies. In other cases, the purchase
department may ask for bids or send out request for quotation before
placing an order. The purchase order is a formal contract for the supply of
materials. Copies of the purchase order are sent to the departments
concerned.
c) Receiving and Inspection of materials:
The stores department is responsible for taking delivery of
packages and to get a physical verification of the contents. When the
materials are received, the stores official gets the packages, open them
and make a detailed verification of the contents. After the contents of the
packages are checked, the details are entered into a Goods Received
Note. Copies of the G.R.Note are issued to the supplier, purchase and
accounts department, where the factory has to test the materials received
for quality and specifications. It has to ensure that the quality of materials
is as per purchase order.
d) Approval of Invoices and Payment
Invoice received by the purchase department is forwarded to the
Accounts department for payment with their recommendation. Accounts
department has to check the authenticity, arithmetical accuracy and G. R.
Note in order to make sure that the goods are as per purchase order.
295
When it is found that everything is in order, it is passed for payment by the
Accountant. Then the cashier will draw the cheque as per terms and
conditions of the purchase order and invoice and finally payment is made
to the supplier.
12.3 STORAGE OF MATERIALS
After purchase, receipt and inspection of materials, the next
important step is storage of materials. It is known as storekeeping. It is
physical storage of materials. The storekeeper is appointed to look after
this work in the stores department. The storekeeper should have the
technical knowledge and experience in stores routine and storekeeping.
He has to ensure regular supply event overstocking and under stocking
and minimize the cost of materials. The storekeeper has to perform the
following functions:
i) Receipts of materials.
ii) Issue purchase requisitions.
iii) Maintain proper record of receipt, issue and balance stock of
materials.
iv) Placing and arranging materials at proper place.
v) Issue of materials against proper authorization.
vi) Minimizing storage handling and maintaining costs.
vii) Ensure that the stock neither exceed maximum level or go below the
minimum level.
12.4 ISSUE OF MATERIALS
All materials in the stores are meant for issue to various
departments. The procedure for the issue is normally laid down by the
management. The storekeeper issues materials to various department
against material requisition note, the specimen of which is given below:-
296
Specimen of Materials Requisition
MATERIAL REQUISITON
Department ………. Serial No………
Job No. ……….. Date …………
Code No. Description Quantity Weight Bin Card No. Stores Ledger Folio Rate Amount
Rs.
Authorised by …………… Received by…..
Storekeeper’s Signature ….. Checked by …….
On receipt of material requisition, the storekeeper issues the
necessary materials after obtaining the signature of the person receiving
the materials. Materials requisitioned from the storekeeper and not
needed or found to be defective are returned to the storeroom and a
returned materials report is prepared by the concerned person upon
receipt of the materials. Sometimes, it is necessary to return any rejected,
excess or damaged materials to the supplier after making correct entries
in the stores ledger.
Materials are issued from stores on properly prepared and
approved materials requisition. It is a written order to the storekeeper to
deliver materials to the place and the department. The materials
requisition note includes date, requisition number, department charged,
name of the stores, ledger account to be credited, description of
materials, quantity, unit price, total value, delivery point and the signature
of the person requisitioning the material and signature of the departments
executive approving the requisition or comparatively fixed list of materials
generally use a special form of material requisition which is called as `bill
of materials’. Materials requisitioned from the stores and not required or
found to be defective are returned to the stores, where a returned material
report is prepared by the concerned person. The amount and value of
materials returned to the stores are deducted from total value of materials
issued. Similarly, the amount shown by materials returned is deducted
from the total amount charged to each department. It may be necessary
297
to return any rejected, excess or damage materials to the supplier. This
also requires some correction entries in the stores ledger.
PRICING OF MATERIALS ISSUED:
When materials are purchased they are recorded at price at which
they are purchased after asking necessary adjustments for discounts,
transportation charges, cost of containers etc. But, when it comes to the
issue of materials, the problem arises with regard to the price at which
each issue should be recorded because the different quantities of
materials are purchased at different prices. For this purpose, a number of
methods of pricing the issue of materials are used which are as follows:-
a) FIFO Method :- The first in first out method is used when the
materials received but are to be issued first. The price of the earliest lot/
quantity is taken first and then for the next lot. The value of closing stock
confirms more or less, to the current market price. This method is suitable
for falling price.
b) LIFO Method : - The last in first out method, is used when
materials received last are issued first. The storekeeper will charge the
cost price of the latest lot purchased. This is suitable in the times of rising
prices.
d) Average Rate Method:- Under this method the materials
are issued at a price which is an average price of materials
purchased. The simple average is an average of prices
without having regard to the quantities involved. Weighted
average price is used in order to avoid fluctuation in price
and reduce the number of calculations. Weighted average
of the total cost and total quantities of materials purchased.
is calculated each time a purchase is made.
298
12.5 INVENTORY CONTROL
In manufacturing organizations inventories include raw materials,
work in progress and finished goods. In trading concerns, inventories
consist of merchandise held for sale and packing and other supplies.
Inventory control is the technique of maintaining inventory items at
desired levels. It is a system which ensures the required quantity of
inventories of the required quality, at the required time and with the
minimum price. The function of inventory turnover is to obtain maximum
inventory turnover with the sufficient stock to meet all requirements.
Inventory control is of great importance in almost all types of business
organizations. If inventories are kept at high levels due to over production
or slow demand, capital is tied up which cannot be used for other
productive purposes. Alternatively, production is likely to suffer due to
inadequate inventory on hand.
12.6 MATERIAL LOSSES
Some material losses are bound to occur during manufacturing
operations due to the nature of materials. These losses may be in the
form of scrap, spoilage, defectives or wastage. Scrap is residue for
manufacturing operations that has measurable but relatively minor
recovery value. It is saleable material resulting from the primary
manufacturing operations. Scrap should be accounted for in some
manner not only from the point of view of efficiency but because scrap is
often a tempting source of theft. If the value of scrap is very insignificant, it
is not considered in the cost accounts, on the other hand, if the value of
scrap is significant it deducted from the material cost.
Spoilage can be defined as the materials which in the process of
manufacture are badly damaged or have developed some imperfection
which cannot be economically correct and thus the goods should be sold
as seconds. The loss due to spoilage may be charged to a specific
product or job on which the spoilage occurred, if it is clearly traceable to
the work done on that order. The normal spoilage loss may be charged to
factory overhead and thus spread over the cost of all jobs or products.
The cost of abnormal spoilage is transferred to the costing profit and loss
account. Abnormal loss is unexpected and should have been avoided by
the management.
299
Defectives are such semi-finished or finished products which in the
process of manufacture have developed some imperfection, but which
unlike spoiled materials can be made into imperfect finished articles with
additional labour and materials. The accounting treatment for defectives is
similar to that relating to spoiled goods.
Wastage generally, refers to that portion of raw materials which
are lost in storing, handling and in manufacturing process. It does not
possess any recovery of realizable value . Waste can be classified as
normal and abnormal waste. Normal waste is expected and
uncontrollable. It is valued like good output. Its cost is transferred to the
costing profit and loss account.
12.7 STORES RECORDS
The important function of the storekeeper is to maintain records of
receipts, issues and balances of various items of materials. Bin Card and
store ledger are two important stores records that are kept for making a
record of the various items at stores,
I) BIN CARD :
A bin is a place where the materials are stored. It may be a shelf,
an aluvarch, open space etc. depending upon the nature of the
commodity. A bin card provides a quantitative record of the receipts,
issues and balance of materials. The bin cards are usually attached to or
placed near to the bin so that receipts and issues may be entered therein
as soon as they take place. Separate bin cards are prepared for each
item of stores. Thus, bin card provides a continuous record of the stock in
each bin and assist the storekeeper to control the stock. For each
materials, the maximum stock to be held are noted on the card. An
ordering level is also indicated therein so that fresh supplies may be
ordered before the minimum is reached. A specimen of the bin card is
given below:
300
BIN CARD
Name ……. Maximum level ……..
Description …………….. Minimum level ……..
Bin No. …… Ordering level ,……..
Location Code ………. Re-ordering quantity …..
Stores Ledger Folio ….. Unit ….
Date Receipts Issues Balance Audit
G.R. No. Qty. Date Req. No. Qty Qty
Date Initials
ii) Stores Ledger
Stores ledger is a continuous record of stores received and issued
and discloses the balance in hand at any time both in quantity and value.
It includes an account of each class of materials and facilitates
ascertainment of all details relating to the material in minimum time. It
provides management with a perpetual inventory. A specimen of the
stores ledger is given below:
301
STORES LEDGER
Name ……. Maximum level ……..
Description …………….. Minimum level ……..
Bin No. …… Ordering level ,……..
Re-ordering quantity …..
Unit ….
Date RECEIPTS ISSUES BALANCE Remarks
G.R. No. Qty. Rate Req. No. Qty Amt. Qty. Rate Amt.
12.8 INTRODUCTION TO LABOUR CONTROL AND
DOCUMENTS:
Labour is an essential factor of production. It is a human resource
and participates in the process of production. Wages paid to labour is a
significant item of cost. The labour cost should be distinguished between
direct and indirect labour. Direct labour cost can be identified with and
charged directly to the product or a job whereas, indirect labour cost is not
so identifiable and, therefore, it is included in overheads which may be
allocated to different products or department on some suitable basis. Cost
accounting for labour has three primary objectives :-
a) Determining labour costs in the cost of product or service
b) Reporting labour costs for planning and control and
c) Reporting labour costs for decision-making.
302
LABOUR CONTROL :
Labour cost is an important part of total cost of production.
Therefore, there is a need for effective control over labour and labour–
related costs. Various departments contribute to the efficient utilisation of
labour and adequate control over costs. Personnel department has to
provide an efficient labour force. The engineering department maintains
control over working conditions and production methods for each job and
department or process by preparing plans and specifications. Timekeeping department maintains an accurate record of the time spent by
each employee. Preparation of the pay roll from the clock cards, job or
time tickers or time sheets is done by the pay roll department. The Cost
Accounting department is responsible for the accumulation and
classification of all data of which labour costs are one of the most
important items.
12.9 TIME KEEPING
As the labour costs constitute a significant portion of the total cost
of a product, proper recording of time and collection of cost data are prerequisites of any system of labour cost control. Time keeping is a system
of recording the time of arrival and departure of workers. It provides a
record of total time spent by the workers in the factory. In addition to
recording of time of arrival and departure of workers it is also necessary to
record time spent by workers on each job, order or process which is
known as time booking. The system of time booking may be maintained
either manually or mechanically. Time recording clocks may be used to
enter the time of starting and finishing each job separately on the job
cards. Time booking can be made with daily time sheets, weekly time
sheets or job cards. The specimen of time card is as follows:-
303
TIME CARD
Name of the worker …….
Department ……………..
Token No. …… Week ending,……..
Day Regular Overtime Total time
In Out In Out Normal time Overtime
Total Wages
Time keeper
Foreman
Job card is issued to each worker for job at the beginning of each
day or week depending upon the number of job he has to work on. It
gives complete record of the time spent by each worker on different jobs
during a particular period. The specimen job card is given below :
JOB CARD
Name of the worker ……. Department
Token No. …… Week ending
Day Job No. Description Time Hours Rate Amount Rs
On Off
Checked – verified Total Hours …..
Worker ……. Normal ………
Foreman ……..
Overtime……..
304
12.10 PAYMENT OF WAGES
Every organization has to maintain a system of payroll accounting
for the purpose of computing wages payable to workers. The work
involves the calculation of wages, deductions, net wages payable to
employees etc. The gross wages payable to each worker are computed
with the help of time card, job card or piece work card. Certain statutory
deductions are also made from the gross wages. The wage sheet is
prepared showing the gross wages, deductions and net wages payable to
workers. It is prepared at periodical intervals according to the time of
wage payment. Normally, wage sheet are prepared separately for
department. But this wage sheet should be checked properly to minimize
the possibilities of wrong payments either deliberately or inadvertently.
Detection and prevention of both errors and frauds, including the checking
for dummy workers in wage sheet, need attention to ensure accuracy in
wage payments.
12.11 IDLE TIME
Idle time is a period or duration for which workers are paid but they
have not worked for production in the factory. When workers are paid on
time basis, some difference between the time for which they actually
spend upon production is bound to arise. Idle time does not include
holidays, leave etc. It may be normal in nature or abnormal. Normal idle
time is that idle time which is unavoidable; it is of normal nature and is
inherent in a production or work environment. Normal idle time is caused
due to the movement of workers. Abnormal idle time is that time which is
not caused by the usual routine of production. The time wasted by the
workers may represent abnormal idle time. The loss incurred by abnormal
conditions cannot be considered as part of the cost of the product and
should be transferred to the Costing Profit and Loss A/c. For example
time lost due to break down of machinery, lack of materials, strikes, lock
out etc.
305
12.12 OVERTIME
Overtime is the time put in by the workers and work done by them
beyond normal hours of work. It is an extra time over and above the
schedule hours of work.
Factories Act, 1948, provides that every worker is to be paid
overtime at a higher rate, normally at double the normal wage rate, if he is
called overtime to work more than 8 hours a day. The excess over normal
wage rate is called overtime premium. Overtime may be considered
useful when there is an urgency, company needs extra production or
when the workers are less than the required number.
In cost accounting, overtime premium should be separated from
regular earning and charged as follows;-
Nature of Overtime Charged to
a. Customers request to complete the job early Job directly
b. General pressure of work General Overhead
c. Delayed Schedule Department
d. Unavoidable Reasons Costing P & L A/c
e. Seasonal rush and peak load Prime cost
Overtime payments made to workers engaged in direct labour are
treated as direct cost and overtime payments made to indirect labour are
treated as part of factory overheads.
306
12.13 INTRODUCTION TO OVERHEADS
All indirect costs are collectively termed as overheads. It is total of
all indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses. They constitute
an important component of total cost of a product, a job or a process.
Overhead costs have to be incurred for production although they are not
directly measurable, observed related to specific activity or unit of
production. For example, depreciation of factory building and machinery,
rent, taxes, insurance, maintenance etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF OVERHEADS
The process of grouping the overheads according to their common
characteristics is known as classification of overheads. It provides the
manager with information that enable them to manage the business
effectively. The overheads can be classified according to:
a) Element : Indirect materials, Labour Expenses;
b) Functions : Production, Administration, Selling and Distribution
overheads;
c) Behaviour : Fixed ,Variable, and Semi-variable overheads
i) Fixed overheads remain fixed and are unaffected by the changes in
the level of production. For example, rent, rates, salaries, legal
expenses etc.
ii) Variable overheads vary in direct proportion to changes in the volume
of production, such as indirect materials, fuel, power, stationery,
salesmen’s commission etc.
iii) Semi- variable overheads are the expenses which are partly fixed
and partly variable.
307
They remain fixed up to a volume of production and vary when the
production is made beyond the particular volume. For example, telephone
charges depreciation of machinery, repairs and maintenance, cost of
supervision etc.
12.14 COLLECTION AND CODIFICATION OF
OVERHEADS
Overheads are collected and codified under proper heads. Similar
overhead cost items should be grouped together. The grouping of
overheads is done through a technique called `Codification’. It is a
method of identification and describing various overhead expenses in
numbers or letter or in combination of both, so that cost data can be
easily collected. Codification of the entire items is done through a proper
coding system. Overheads are collected through the sources of stores
requisitions, financial accounts, wage sheets, registers and reports.
12.15 ALLOCATION OF OVERHEADS
Allocation of overheads is the `allotment’ of all items of cost of cost
centres or cost to units. It refers to charging overheads to the cost
centres. It means that overheads have been incurred because of the
existence of that cost centre. When the company provides more than one
product, factory overheads are allocated to various production
departments or cost centres. Proper overheads allocation is of great
importance as wrong allocation can distort income determination, asset
valuation and performance evaluation. The overhead allocation process is
as follows:-
i) Accumulating overheads on the basis of departments or products.
ii) Identifying the cost objectives of the allocated costs
iii) Selecting the method of relating costs so accumulated to the cost
objectives.
308
12.16. APPORTIONMENT OF OVERHEADS:
Apportionment of Overheads refers to the distribution of common
items of cost to two or more cost centres on some appropriate basis.
When overheads are incurred for the factory as a whole and benefit two
or more cost centres, it is necessary to apportion them to different
departments that receive benefits from such overhead costs. For
example, factory rent benefits all the departments, hence it should be
apportioned to all the departments on the basis of the floor area occupied
by each department in factory. Thus, common factory overheads have to
be apportioned to various production and service departments in the
factory on some appropriate basis.
A production department is one that engages in the actual
manufacture of product. On the other hand, service department is one
that renders a service which contributes indirectly in the manufacture of
the product. It renders services to the production as well as other service
departments.
The common factory overheads are to be apportioned to various
production and service departments on some equitable basis which are
called principles of apportionment. Accordingly, overheads are distributed
over various departments on the basis of actual benefit received or
potential benefits to be received by the respective departments
Overheads can also be apportioned on the specific criteria or given ratio
which may be determined after careful survey for different service
functions. Apportionment of overheads can also be made on the basis of
ability to pay (Revenue) of the departments.
The usual basis of apportionment of common items of factory
overheads can be stated a follows:-
Items of Overheads Basis of Apportionment
a. Rents rates, taxes and Insurance - Floor space/ area occupied
depreciation & repairs of buildings
b. Canteen, welfare expenses - No. of employees
Time keeping & Personnel office
309
c. Depreciation, repairs & maintenance - Capital cost of machinery
& Insurance of machinery
d. Power, steam, lighting - Technical estimates
(HP hours)
e. Compensation - Direct wages
f. Advertising, Packing, Warehousing - Sales value/ volume
12.17 SELF TEST.
1. What do you mean by materials control?
2. Distinguish between direct and indirect material cost?
3. How will you ensure effective inventory control?
4. What is the importance of control of labour cost?
5. Explain various methods of recording time of the workers?
6 What are the reasons for booking workers on idle time in a factory?
7. What are the overheads ? How are they classified?
8. Distinguish between fixed, semi-fixed and variable overheads costs
giving examples of each overhead.
9. What are the causes of under/ over absorption of factory overheads?
How will you deal with them in cost accounts?
10. Write short notes on
a) Bin Cards c) Over time
b) Stores ledger d) Idle time
e) Basis of overhead apportionment.
6. Given below are the summarized balance sheet of XYZ Ltd. As on
31st December, 1974 and 31st December, 1975.
310
Balance Sheets
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
Issued Share
Capital
Share Premium
a/c
Capital
Reserve (Profit
on sale
Of freehold
property)
Profit & Loss A/c
Trade Creditors
Proposed
Dividend
120000
--
--
43000
54400
12000
-----------
229400
150000
10000
34000
42400
65200
17000
----------
318600
Freehold
Properties
At cost
Plaint &
Machinery
At cost, less
Depreciation
Preliminary
Expenses
Stock-in-trade
Debtors
Balance at Bank
66000
41600
2400
60700
40200
18500
------------
229400
48000
120600
1200
65700
49500
33600
-----------
318600
311
The Following is a summary of the Profit and Loss A/c for the year 1975.
Profit and Loss Account
Rs. Rs.
Proposed Dividends
Balance c/f
17000
42400
----------
59400
Net profit for the year
Balance from 1974
16400
43000
------------
59400
No plant and machinery was sold during 1975. The net profit
Rs.16400 is the amount after charging Rs.15000 for depreciation of Plant
and Machinery and after writing off preliminary expenses Rs.1200.
Prepare a statement showing ;
i) The net increase in Working Capital during the year 1975 and
ii The Sources S and Applications of working Capital during that year
(Adapted – Chartered Institute of Secretaries Eng.)
Ans. Increase in Working Capital Rs.18600, Funds from Operations
Rs.32600 Total of Sources & Applications Rs. 124600 and Rs. 106000
respectively)
7. The Balance Sheets of XYZ Ltd. As on 31st March, 1974 and 31st
March, 1975 are given below
312
Balance Sheet
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
Issued Share
Capital (Shares of
Re.1 each)
Capital Reserves
Share Premium
Profit on sale
Of freeholds
Profit & Loss A/c
5% Debentures
Current Liabilities
300000
32000
64000
----------
446000
350000
10000
2900
10000
5000
68000
----------
490900
Freehold
Properties
At cost
Plaint &
Machinery
At cost, less
Depreciation
Preliminary
Expenses
Current Assets
20000
286000
1600
138400
------------
44600
16000
308000
800
166100
-----------
490900
The whole Share capital of the company was issued for cash
Depreciation on Plant and machinery written. Off during the year to 31st
March 1975 amounted to Rs.28000 During the same year company paid
a Dividend of Rs.15000
Prepare a statement showing:-
i) the net increase in the Working Capital during the year ended 31st
March, 1975 and
ii) the sources and applications of funds during the year
(Adapted – Chartered Institute of Secretaries Eng.)
(Ans Increase in Working Capital Rs.23700; Funds from Operations
Rs.71800, Total of Sources & Applications rs.138700 and Rs.115000
respectively)
8. The comparative Balance Sheets of ABC Industries ltd. For 1974
and 1975 are given below:-
313
Balance Sheets
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
1974
Rs.
1975
Rs.
Paid up Capital
Reserves & Surplus
Mortgage Loan
Sundry Creditors
Liabilities for
Expenses
Provision for
Depreciation
Provision for
Taxation
300000
120600
20000
42400
2600
25600
11000
----------
522500
340000
143600
19000
45200
1000
34000
12400
----------
595200
Bank
Debtors
Stock
Marketable
securities
Trade Investments
Plaint & Machinery
Land and Buildings
Intangible Assets
45600
9800
42000
32200
42300
183400
150000
16900
------------
522200
48800
16000
65200
10000
35100
268000
140000
12100
-----------
595200
The following transactions took place during 1975
Land which had cost Rs.10000 was sold for Rs.25000 Some of
the marketable securities were sold at a loss of Rs.3000. difference
between the figures to trade investments represents amount written off in
respect of worthless investments. A divided of Rs. 25000 was paid. An old
machinery which had cost Rs.10000 (accumulated depreciation thereon
Rs.8000) was sold for Rs.6000
Prepare a Funds Flow Statement.
(Ans. Increase in W.C Rs. 9200; Funds from operations Rs.58800, Total
of Sources & Applications Rs.129800 and Rs.120600 respectively)
314
12. Below are given the Balance Sheets as on December, 31, 1969
and December, 31 1970 for Ashoka Co. Sales for the year 1969 were
Rs.2,10,000. Net income after taxes was Rs.7000. In arriving at the Net
Profit, items deducted from sales included among others. Cost of goods
sold Rs.165000; depreciation Rs.5000 wages and salaries Rs.20000.
There was a gain of Rs.1000 on the sale of a truck. The truck had cost
Rs.600, depreciation of Rs.4000 had been accumulated for it and it was
sold for Rs.3000. This was the only asset written off during the year. The
company declared and paid Rs.6000 in dividends during the year.
Balance Sheets
Dec 31,
1969
Dec 31,
1970
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Assets
Cash
Accounts Receivable
Inventory
Prepaid Insurance
Prepaid Rent
Prepaid Property Taxes
Land
Building & Equipment
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Total Assets
Liabilities
Account Payable
Accrued Expenses
Income tax Payable
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings
30000
10000
5000
14000
22000
200
150
300
4000
20000
65650
20000
2000
1000
30000
12650
48000
11000
6000
14000
8000
250
100
400
8000
37000
73750
18000
4000
1100
37000
13650
315
Total liabilities
-----------
65650
----------
73750
Prepare a fund flow statement and described the most significant
development revealed by his statement.
316
13
METHODS OF COSTING
STRUCTURE :
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Unit or Batch Costing
13.3 Job costing
13.4 Contract Costing
13.5 Process costing
13.6 Operating costing
13.7 Books Recommended
13.8 Exercises
13.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are :-
(a) Define unit or batch costing and determine the cost of production of
each batch or unit.
(b) Define job costing and prepare a job cost sheet.
(c) Define process costing and prepare process cost accounts.
(d) Define operating costing and determine a statement of operating
cost of services
.
317
31.1 INTRODUCTION
There are various products manufactured in business
organizations. They use different costing systems to meet their needs.
Basically, there are two methods or systems of assigning costs of
manufacture to individual products :- (a) Job order costing and (b)
Process costing. These are the important methods of Product costing.
These methods are used for determining the unit cost of production and
keeping detailed records supporting the work in Process inventory. There
are variety of methods of costing which are merely variations or
adaptations of the two basic methods of costing Important methods can
be enumerated as follows :-
(i) Unit or Batch costing
(ii) Job costing
(iii) Contract costing
(iv) Process costing
(v) Operating costing
13.2 UNIT OR BATCH COSTING
Unit costing is a method of costing under which the cost of a unit is
ascertained by dividing the total cost by the number of units produced. It
is used in the industries which are engaged in manufacturing exclusively
one homogeneous product or a few grades of the same product. It is also
called as single or output costing. Unit is also called as single or output
costing. Unit cost is the average cost of production. The examples of
industries are Cement, Paper, Sugar, Steel etc. The computation of cost
is done in the form of cost sheet.
Batch costing is concerned with producing a large quantity of
products which could be stocked and sold later on. A batch is a cost unit
consisting of a group of identical items which maintain their identity
through one or more stages of production. A lot is the quantity of product
which can be conveniently and economically produced and costed. The
companies which produce shoes, medicines, drugs and nuts & bolts use
318
this method of costing. In batch costing the cost unit is a batch of specific
quantity of identical products.
In batch costing each batch is given a definite order number. All
the costs relating to the batch are accumulated. After completion of batch
or order the cost sheet is totaled and the total cost is divided by the total
quantity produced in order to determine the cost per article.
Illustration – 1 :
SMP Ltd. manufactures papers. The following details are given for the current year
Direct materials - Paper Pulp – 500 tonnes @ Rs. 500 each
Other materials – 100 tounnes @ Rs. 300 each
Direct labour - 80 Skilled men @ Rs. 30 per day for 25 days
- 40 unskilled men @ Rs. 20 per day for 25 days
Direct expenses – Special equipment & Dyes Rs. 40,000 Factory
overheads are variable @ 100 % of direct wages and Fixed @
60% of direct wages. Administrative overheads are @ 10 Percent
of Factory cost and Selling & Distribution overheads are @ 15 %
on Work cost. 400 Tonnes of Paper was manufactured during the
year and Rs. 8000 realized by selling waste materials. Calculate
unit cost of production per tone of paper manufactured.
319
Solution :
Cost sheet for the year ended
Production 400 Tonnes Total cost
(Rs.)
Cost Per Tonne
(Rs.)
Direct materials –
Paper Pulp
Other materials
Direct Labour
Skilled
Unskilled
Direct Expenses
PRIME COST
Factory overheads :
Variable
Fixed
Sale of waste
WORKS COST
Administrative overheads
COST OF PRODUCTION
Selling & Distn Expenses
COST OF SALES
250000
30,000
60,000
20,000
40,000
4,00,000
80,000
48,000
-8000
520,000
52,000
572,000
78,000
650,000
625
75
150
50
100
1000
200
120
-20
1300
130
1430
195
1625
Illustration – 2 :
PGG Ltd. undertakes to supply 1000 units of a component per
month for Jan. Feb. & March. Every month a batch order is opened
320
against which materials and labour cost are booked at actuals.
Overheads are levied at a rate per labour hour. The selling price is fixed
at Rs. 15 per unit. From the following data, determine the cost and profit
per unit of each batch order and overall position of the order for 3000
units.
Month Batch output
(Numbers)
Materials cost
Rs.
Labour cost
Rs.
January
February
March
Labour is paid at
the rate of Rs.2 per
hour. The other
details are :-
Month
January
February
March
1250
1500
1000
Overhead
Rs.12000
Rs.9000
Rs,15000
6250
9000
5000
2500
3000
2000
Total labour hour
4000
4500
5000
321
PGG Ltd.
Statement of cost & Profit per unit of each Batch
January February March Total
Batch output (Nos)
Sale value (Rs.)
Cost
Materials
Wages
Overheads
Total
Profit per batch
Cost per unit
Profit per unit
1250
18750
-
6250
2500
3750
12500
6250
10
5
1500
22500
-
9000
3000
3000
15000
7500
10
5
1000
15000
-
5000
2000
3000
10000
5000
10
5
3750
56,250
-
20,250
7500
97500
37500
18750
Overall position of order for 3000 units –
Sales value – 3000 x 15 Rs.45,000
Total cost - 3000 x 10 Rs.30,000
--------------
Profit Rs.15,000
--------------
Workding :-
Jan. Feb. March
Cost 2500 3000 2000
(a) Labour Hours = ---------- = --------- --------- ------------
322
Rate 2 2 2
= 1250 1500 100
Overheads = 12000 9000 15000
(b) Overhead per hour =---------------- ------ --------- -------------
Hours 4000 4500 5000
Rs. = 3 2 3
(c) Overheads for batch = 1250 x 3 1500 x 2 1000 x 3
3750 3000 3000
13.3 JOB COSTING
Job costing is a method of costing which is applied to determine
the cost of specific job of production generally manufactured according to
customers specification. All the jobs are not similar. They do not pass
through the same manufacturing process. Each job requires different
amount of materials and labour and different levels of skills. Therefore,
the cost of each job differs from other. The cost is recorded separately for
each job. Each job or batch is regarded as a cost unit from the view point
of accumulation. For example, Printing jobs, Automobile repairs,
Hospitals, Ship-uniters have to follow job costing.
A job cost sheet is prepared on receipt of an order. A specific
number is allotted to each job put into production. General information in
respect of the job is recorded at the top of the job-sheet. Appropriate
inputs are recorded in the job cost sheet regarding direct materials, labour
and overheads. Additional information such as labour-hours, machine
hours, quanity and quality of materials used are also recorded for the
purpose of planning controlling cost and evaluating performance. Finally
the profit or loss on the job can be easily determined. The job cost sheet
also provides for the comparison of the actual cost with the estimated
costs.
323
Illustration – 3 :
The following information is taken from the records of Automotive
Engineering Works in respect of Job. No. 101.
Materials Rs. 4020
Wages :-
Dept. A – 60 Hours @ Rs. 3 per hour
Dept. B – 40 Hours @ Rs. 2 per hour
Dept. C – 20 Hours @ Rs. 5 per hour
The overhead expenses are as follows :
Variable :-
Dept. A – Rs. 5000 for 5000 Labour Hours
Dept. B – Rs. 3000 for 1500 Labour Hours
Dept. C – Rs. 2000 for 1000 Labour Hours
Fixed :- Rs. 20,000 for 10,000 working Hours. Determine the cost of Job
No. 101 and price for the job to give a profit of 25 per cent on the Selling
Price.
324
Solution :
Job Cost Sheet – Job No. 101
Amount Rs.
-----------------------
Materials 4020
Wages Dept. A – 60 x 3 = 180
Dept. B – 40 x 2 = 80
Dept. C – 20 x 5 = 100 360
Overhead expenses :- Variable
Dept A – 60 x 1 Rs. 60
Dept B – 40 x 2 Rs. 80
Dept C – 20 x 2 Rs. 40 180
Overhead expenses – Fixed
120 hours @ Rs. 2 each 240
Total cost 4800
Profit (33 1/3% on cost) 1600
--------
Selling Price 6400
--------
Workding :-
325
1) Variable overhead Rate =
Dept. A – Rs. 5000 for 5000 Hours = Rs. 1 per hour
Dept. B – Rs. 3000 for 1500 Hours = Rs. 2 per hour
Dept. C – Rs. 2000 for 1000 Hours = Rs. 2 per hour
2) Fixed overhead Rate = Rs. 20000 for 10000 hours = Rs. 2 per hour
Illustration – 4 :
The normal expenses attributable to Machine No. 303 and the
normal hours for which the machine is expected to be utilized in the
current year are given below :-
Fixed Rs. 2000
Variable – Power Rs. 15000
– Repairs Rs. 900
– Lubricants Rs. 600 3000
----------
Total 5000
---------
Predetermined normal hours of working :-
To make ready - 200
To run the jobs - 800
---------------------
Total 1000 Hours
---------------------
326
From the following information, compute the cost of Job No. 123
Materials consumed – 10 units @ Rs. 5 each
Direct labour cost :-
To make ready – 2 machine Hours @ Rs. 1 each
To run the job – 8 machine Hours @ Rs. 1 each
Solution :
Job cost sheet (Job No. 123)
Amount Rs.
50
Materials (10 units @ Rs. 5 each)
Direct Labour :-
To make ready – 2 Hours @ Re. 1 each 02
To run the job – 8 Hours @ Re. 1 each 08
Prime cost 60
Factory overheads :-
To make ready :- 2 hours @ Rs. 2 each 04
To run the job – 8 Hours @ Rs. 5.75 each 46
Cost of Production 110
327
Working :
Determination of Factory overheads :
Fixed overhead rate to make ready = 2000 .2
1000 = Rs
13.4 CONTRACT COSTING :
Introduction : Contract Costing is the form of specific order costing which
applies where work is undertaken to customer’s special requirements and
each order is of long duration. It is a special type of job costing where the
unit of cost is a single contract. Contract itself is the cost centre and it is
executed under the specifications of a customer. Contract Costing is
mainly used by Civil Engineers who undertake long term projects such as
construction of road, bridge, building etc. it is similar to job costing. It has
following features.
(i) The work is done at a site which is generally away from the
contractor’s premises.
(ii) The contract takes more than a single accounting period.
(iii) Most of the expenses are chargeable directly to the contracts.
(iv) Each contract is distinct and dissimilar from other contracts.
13.4.1 Important Terms used in Contract Costing :
The following terms are generally used in Contract Costing.
(a) Contract : A contract is a legally enforceable agreement. It is an
agreement between contractor and contractee which contains the
terms and conditions in relation to a job.
(b) Contractor : The person who undertakes to do the job is a
contractor.
328
(c) Contractee : The person for whom the job is being done is the
contractee.
(d) Contract Price : It is the amount agreed to be paid by the contractor
as consideration for the job to be done.
(e) Work certified : It is the quantum of work done by the contractor
and certified by the technical assessor (surveyor or architect)
appointed by the Contractee in terms of the contract.
(f) Work uncertified : It is the value of work completed by the
contractor but not certified by the Architect or Surveyor at the end of
the accounting period.
(g) Reteintion Money : It is the amount in respect of the portion of work
certified and retained by the contract with firm as security deposit on
account of any loss that may arise due to defects in the work noticed
in future.
13.4.2 Recording costs on contract :
Under Contract Costing, a contract is basically the cost unit and it
is regarded as a cost centre for the purpose of control. A separate
contract account is opened for individual contract for the purpose of
determination of profit or loss on each contract. The following costs are
recorded in the contract account.
(1) Materials :-
Materials are normally purchased and delivery obtained at the site.
Excess materials, if any, may either be sold at site or returned to the
store. Sometimes, materials are sent from one site to another. All the
materials purchased or sent from the stores or another site are debited to
contract account and materials sold or returned to stores are credited to
the contract. Materials on hand at the end of the accounting period are
credited to contract account.
329
(2) Labour :
It is easy to allocate major part of the labour to contract account. A
muster is maintained at the site for the contract. Labour cost is
accumulated and debited to each contract. Some workers are deputed
from one site to another for some time which is debited to the respective
contract on the basis of the time spent on each contract. At the end of the
accounting period, the amount of outstanding labour charges is
determined and also debited to the contract account.
(3) Plant & Tools :
The contract account is debited to the extent of the depreciation of
the plant or tools used for the period on each contract.
(4) Sub-Contracting :
A part of the work may be given to antother contract or which is
called sub-contracting. The entire amount paid to the sub-contractor is
debited to the particular contract account.
(5) Work in Progress :
At the end of the accounting period an incomplete contract will
appear as an asset in the balance sheet. The work in progress includes
the following :
Cost of work Certified xxx
Cost of work uncertified xxx
Profit taken credit for xxx
Total
330
Less : Account received from the Contractee xxx
Work in Progress xxx
The value of work in progress is the balance on the contract
account which is carried down to the following accounting period.
13.4.3 Profit on Incomplete Contracts :
The difference on the two sides of contract account naturally
indicates the profit or loss on the contract and is transferred to costing
profit and loss account. When the contract is incomplete at the end of the
costing period, several adjustments are usually necessary to close the
books.
It is the general rule that profit cannot be anticipated and taken
credit for. Therefore, profit earned on a contract must be recognized only
on the completion of the contract. However, large contracts are hardly
completed in the year of commencement. They extend over a number of
accounting periods. Therefore, it is advisable to take credit for profit where
it is anticipated. In such a case it is always good that profit is
conservatively calculated and only a percentage of total estimated profit
on the complete contract equivalent is transferred to the general profit and
loss account.
The following principles must be borne in mind in determined the
amount of profit to be taken credit for :
(i) The stage of completion of the contract is determining as follows :
Work Certified = Contract Price x 100
(ii) It is conventional to classify incomplete contracts on the basis of
the stage of completion as under :
(a) If the work completed is less than 25%, then no profit is
331
taken credit for during that accounting period.
(b) If the work completed is 25% to 50%, one third of profit is
taken credit for during that period.
(c) If the work completed is more than 50% but less than 75%,
half of the profit is taken credit for during that period.
(d) If the work completed is more than 75 % but less than 90
% two third of the profit is taken credit for during that period
and
(e) If the work is almost completed and very insignificant
portion is remained, estimated cost of expanses for the
outstanding work is charged, to the cost and the entire
profit is taken credit for during the period.
Even here, it is considered improper to take the entire estimated
profit to the profit and loss account when cash for the work done is
not received. The portion of profit for which credit can be taken is
determined by using the following formula :
Cash received
Profit = Estimated Profit x ----------------------
Work Certified
Since the cash received from the contractee is normally less than work
certified, this method is suitable for conservatism principles.
Illustration – 5 :
National Co. Ltd. undertook a contract at a price of Rs. 10,00,000. The
work started 1st on April 2008. Prepare a Contract Account for the year
ended 31st March 2009, from the following particulars.
Rs.
Materials issued to site 85,000
332
Labour on site 75,000
Plant installed at site 15,000
Sundry Direct Expenses 3,000
Establishment charges allotted to contract 4,000
Materials returned to stores 500
Work certified by architect 2,00,000
Cost of work not certified 5,000
Materials on hand on 31-3-2009 2,000
Wages due on 31-3-2009 10,000
Value of plant on 31-3-2009 12,000
Cash received 1,80,000
Solution :
Contract Account
Rs. Rs.
To Materials 85,000 By
Contractee
A/c
2,00,000
To wages 75,000 (Work
Certified)
+ Outstanding 10,000 By Materials
returned to
85,000 Stores 500
To Depreciation on
Plant
3,000
To Sundry
Expenses
3,000 By Work in
Progress
333
To Establishment
charges
4,000 Work
uncertified
5,000
To Balance c/d 32,000 Materials on
hand
2,000
(work in Progress) 7,000
2,12,000 2,12,000
Note :- Since the contract has been completed less than 25% no profit will
be taken to Profit & Loss Account. Hence, the balance of contract
account will be taken as work in progress.
Illustration – 6 :
SM Construction Ltd. have obtained a contract for construction of
a bridge. The contract price is Rs. 12,00,000 and the work commenced on
1st November 2008. The following details are shown in their books for the
year ended 30th September 2009.
Rs.
Materials issued to site 3,25,000
Wages paid 3,00,000
Plant purchased 50,000
General overheads apportioned 30,000
Direct Expenses 10,000
Wages accrued on 30-9-2009 3,000
Materials at site on 30-9-2009 4,000
Direct expenses accured as on 30-9-2009 1,000
Work not yet certified 14,000
334
Cash received being 80% of work certified 6,00,000
Life of the plant purchased is 5 years and the scrap value is nil.
Prepare Contract account, and show the amount of profit which would be
taken on contract on a conservative basis.
Solution :
Contract Account
Rs. Rs.
To Materials 3,25,000 By Work in
progress
To Wages 3,00,000 cost of work
+ Accured 3,000 3,03,000 Uncertified 14,000
Materials at site 4,000
To Direct Exp. 10,000 By Contractee
A/c
7,50,000
+ Accured 1,000 11,000
To Depreciation on Plant 10,000
To General Overheads 30,000
To P & L A/c 35,600
To Balance C/d 53,400
89,000
7,68,000 7,68,000
Note : Profit to be taken to P & L Account is as follows :
7,50,000
(i) Contract completed = ------------ x 100 = 62.5%
12,00,000
335
(ii) Since contract is complete more than 50% but less than 75% half
of the estimated profit should be taken to Profit and Loss Account
which will further be reduced to the proportion of cash received to
work certified.
Cash received
Cash received
Profit = Estimated Profit x ½ x ---------------------
Work certified
1 x 6,00,000
= 89,000 x ------------------ = 35,600
2 x 7,50,000
100
(iii) Work certified = --------- x 6,00,000 = 7,50,000
80
13.5 PROCESS COSTING :
Introduction : Process costing is a method of costing in which the cost of
each process is ascertained and the same is absorbed by the output of
that process. It is a product costing system which is applied to
manufacturing concerns in producing large volume of similar products
with continuous flow or process. In a process costing system the type of
production is such that a continuous flow of output of identical products is
produced.
There is no unit with an individual identity because each unit is part of a
process. This method is used in industries like chemicals, textiles, rubber,
cement, sugar, coal etc. It can also be used in the assembly type
industries which manufacture items like typewriters, automobiles, radios
and TV’s etc. Therefore, process costing is usefully applied when
products are manufactured under conditions of continuous processing or
under mass production method.
336
13.5.1 Features of Process Costing :
A Process cost system has the following features :
(i) The factory is divided into departments or process which are
limited to a certain operation.
(ii) Manufacturing costs are accumulated for each production
department or process.
(iii) The manufacturing cost are accumulated by department or
process for specific period.
(iv) Process costing is an averaging process.
(v) Each process or department has its own account for recording
the processing costs.
(vi) The production is continuous and emphasis is uniform or
standardized product.
(vii) The unit completed in one process are transferred to the next
process together with costs associated with them. Completed
unit are transferred to finished goods.
(viii) Wastages or cost of spoiled units is added to the cost of good
units produced which increases the average cost per unit.
13.5.2 Costing Procedure :
Specific accounting procedure is followed in order to accumulate
production costs by process and to compute unit costs. A separate
account is maintained for each process to which all costs of material,
labour, direct expenses and overheads are debited.
Materials :
Normally, all materials required for production are issued to the
first process. However, extra or new materials may be added to the next
process. The cost of materials consumed is debited to the respective
process account.
Labour :
Wages and salaries paid to workmen and supervisory staff
337
engaged in a particular process are debited to the concerned process
account. When workers are engaged in more than one process, the gross
wages are distributed to each process on the basis of time spent on each
process.
Direct Expenses :
Direct expenses, which can be attributed directly to a process, are
debited to the respective process account. For example, electricity,
depreciation, hire charges of equipments etc.
Manufacturing Overheads :
Overheads are generally high in the process costing. The
overheads have to be analysed and apportioned on some equitable basis
over the different processes involved. Overheads may be apportioned on
a predetermined rate based on direct wages or prime cost.
13.5.3 Treatment of Process Loss :
In many processes, a loss of weight may arise in the course of
manufacture. In process industries, production losses are inevitable and
output is always less than the input. Thus, when the output is less than
the input the difference is known as process loss, Even though the loss is
inevitable, it is still essential that accurate records are maintained and
suitable steps are taken to minimize the process loss. Since it affect the
production costs, it should be pointed out to the foremen and supervisors
for ensuring efficiency in the use of material in future. They may have
keen inspection at each stage of production and losses can be reduced in
future. Process loss can be divided into two categories (i) Normal loss and
(ii) Abnormal loss.
(i) Normal loss :- Centrain losses can be anticipated and an
estimate of such loss can be made depending upon the material
used, production operation involved, equipment used, technology
employed and other factors. These losses are inherent in the
production operation and are known as normal losses. For
example, in the Sugar or Oil Industry the output cannot be equal to
338
the input of sugarcane or oil seed. Normal loss is unavoidable,
uncontrollable and expected in normal conditions. It may be
inherent in the manufacturing process. When normal loss occurs,
the cost of such loss is absorbed in the cost of production of good
products i.e. output. Thus, normal losses are absorbed by good
production and its cost shown as nil in the process cost account.
However, if the normal loss is in the form of scrap and has some
realizable value, the process cost account is credited with the
value of scrap.
(ii) Abnormal Loss : Losses which te in excess of normal losses are
called Abnormal Losses. These losses are incurred due to
abnormal or unexpected conditions like accidents, inferior quality
of materials, carelessness of workers and defective plant
maintenance. Abnormal process loss is controllable and
avoidable. All losses of this type must be recorded and thoroughly
investigated and possible steps should be taken to prevent such
losses in future.
Abnormal losses are not included in the cost of normal output. The
average cost of the lost units is charged to an abnormal loss
account which is credited with the scrap and transfered to profit
and loss account. The value of abnormal loss is determined as
under :
Cost of Production – Scrap Value
Abnormal loss per unit = -------------------------------------------
Output (no of units)
The value of abnormal loss is debited to Abnormal Loss Account
and credited the process Account. The scrap value of abnormal loss is
credited to Abnormal Loss Account. The balance so Abnormal loss
account is transferred to the Profit and Loss Account
339
Abnormal Gain :
Abnormal gain arises when the actual loss is less than the normal
loss expected. When the loss is less than expected, the result is abnormal
gain. The value of abnormal gain is calculated in a similar manner to an
abnormal loss and such value is debited to the concerned Process
Account and Credited to a separate account called Abnormal Gain
Account. The amount of scrap which would otherwise have been realized
had there been normal loss and no abnormal gain is debited to the
abnormal gain account. The balance of abnormal gain account is finally
transferred to the Profit and Loss Account.
12.5.4Joint Product and By Products :
Most of the industries carry out multiple production in their
factories. Two or more
products can be produced simultaneously from the use of a single raw
material. There are many industries which product Joint Product and By
Products. Some examples of industries where Joint Products and By
Product are produced are as under :
Industry Joint Products and By products
Oil Oil Oil Cakes
Dairy Butter, Cream, Ice-cream
Steel Iron, Steel
Sugar Sugar, Paper, Country Liquor.
Joint Products :
When two or more products are separated in the course of
processing, each having a sufficiently high saleable Value, these are
called joint products. Thus a joint product is any output of a manufacturing
process producing multiple products that add significantly to the total
market value of all output. Joint products require simultaneous common
processing. They have a physical relationship and processing of one of
340
the joint products simultaneously results in the processing of the other
joint products. Joint products are the primary objectives of manufacturing
process.
By Products :
By products is a product which is recovered incidentally from the
material used in the manufacture of main product. The value of By
product is generally less than the values of main products. Thus a product
which is secondary to the main product and obtained during the course of
manufacture of main product is a By product. By-product is generally
subject to further processing after separation from the main product.
When income from By product is negligible, it is treated as
miscellaneous income. However, when the income from By product is
considerable, the market value of the By product after deducting costs
and expenses incurred from the point of separation to the actual sales
should be credited to the main product process account. If the By product
is sold after further processing the main product process cost account
must be credited with the market value of the By product after deducting
the further processing charges from the point of separation.
Illustration – 7 :
The manufacture of Product X requires three distinct process. On
completion, the product is passed from PROCESS III to finished stock.
During June 2009 the following information was obtained in respect of the
product.
Element of cost Total Process
I II III
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Direct Material 7,600 5,600 1,250 750
Direct Labour 3,360 620 860 1,880
Direct Expenses 1,000 800 200 -
341
Production Overhead 5,040 - - -
There was no stock of raw material or work in progress either at
the beginning or at the end of the period. Production overhead is
absorbed by processes on the basis of 150% of direct wages. Production
during the month of June 2009 was 100 units.
Prepare Process Account and Finished Stock Account.
Solution :
Process I Account
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
To Direct Material
To Direct Labour
To Direct Expenses
To Production
Overhead
5,600
620
800
930
56,00
6.20
8.00
9.30
By Output
transferred
to Process II
7,950 79.50
Total 7,950 79.50 Total 7,950 79.50
Process II Account
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
342
To Output transferred
from Process I
To Direct Materials
To Direct Labour
To Direct Expenses
To Production Over
head
7,950
1,250
860
200
1,290
79.50
12.50
8.60
2.00
12.90
By Output
transferred to
Process III
11,550 115.50
Total 11,550 115.50 Total 11,550 115.50
Process III Account
Output
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
Rs. Per
Unit
Rs.
To Transferred
From Process II
To Direct
Materials
To Direct Labour
To Direct
Expenses
To Production
Overhead
Head
11,550
750
1,880
2,820
115.50
7.50
18.80
28.20
By Output
transferred to
Finished stock
Account
17,000 170.00
Total 17,000 170.00 Total 17,000 170.00
Finished Stock A/c
343
Rs. Rs.
To Output transferred from
Process III 17,000 -
---------- -----------
- -
--------- -----------
Illustration – 8 :
Product Z is obtained after it is processed through three distinct
processes. The following cost information is available for the operation.
Element of Cost Total Process
I II III
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Direct Materials 56,250 26,000 20,000 10,250
Direct Wages 73,300 22,500 36,800 14,000
Production Overhead Rs. 73,300
5000 Units @ Rs. 4 Per Unit were introduced in Process I.
Production overheads be distributed as 100% on direct wages.
The actual output and normal loss of the respective process were.
Output Normal Value of
Units Loss scrap per
On input Unit Rs.
Process I 4,500 10% 2
Process II 3,400 20% 3
Process III 2,70 25% 4
There was no stock in progress in any processes. You are required to
prepare -
344
(a) Process Accounts.
(b) Normal Loss Account.
(c) Abnormal Loss and Abnormal Gain Account.
Solution :
Process I Account
Units Cost
Rs.
Units Cost
Rs.
To Materials
Introduced
To Materials
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overhead
5,000 20,000
26,000
22,500
22,500
By Normal Loss
By Transfer to
Process II
500
4,500
1,000
90,000
5,000 91,000 5,000 91,000
Process II Accounts
Units Cost
Rs.
Units Cost
Rs.
To Transfer from
Process I
To Materials
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overhead
4,500 90,000
20,000
36,800
36,800
By Normal Loss
By Abnormal
Loss
By Transfer to
Process III
900
200
3,400
2,700
10,050
1,70,850
4,500 1,83,600 4,500 1,83,600
345
Working :
(1) Calculation of Abnormal Loss
Input – Normal Loss = Normal Output
Abnormal Loss = Normal Output = Actual Output.
Normal output = 4,500 Units – 900 Units
= 3,600 Units
However Actual Output is 3,400 units.
Abnormal Loss = 3,600 – 3,400 = 200 units
(2) Valuation of Abnormal Loss
Total Cost – Scrap Value
Abnormal Loss Per Unit = -----------------------------
Normal Out put
1,83,600 – 2700 1,80,900
= --------------------- = Rs .--------------
3,600 3,600
= Rs. 5025
Total Abnormal Loss = 200 units @ Rs. 50.25
= Rs. 10,050
346
Prcoess III Account
Per
Rs. Per Unit
Cost
Rs. Per Unit
Cost
To Trans from
Process II
To Materials
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overhead
To Abnormal Gain
3,400
450
1,70,850
10,250
14,000
14,000
12,101
By Normal Loss
By Transfer to
Finished Stock
A/c
850
2,700
3,400
2,17,801
3,550 2,21,201 3,550 2,21,201
Working :
(1) Calculation of Abnormal Gain.
Normal Output = Input – Normal Loss.
= 3,400 – 25% of 3,400
= 3,400 – 850
= 2,550 Units
Actual Output was 2,700 units. Hence there is abnormal gain of
150 units as under : Actual Output – Normal Output =
2,700 – 2,550 = 150 Units.
347
(2) Valuation of Abnormal Gain -
Total Cost – Scrap Value
Abnormal Gain Per Unit = -----------------------------
Normal Out put
2,09,100 – 3,400 2,05,700
= ------------ Rs. ----------
= Rs.80,67
2,550 2,550
Total Value of abnormal gain = 80.67 x 150 units = Rs. 12,101
Normal Loss Account
Units Rs. Units Rs.
To Process I
To Process II
To Process III
500
900
850
2,250
1,000
2,700
3,400
7,100
By Cash –
Process I
By Cash –
Process II
By Cash –
Process III
By Abnormal
Gain
500
900
700
150
2,250
1,000
2,700
2,800
600
7,100
348
Abnormal Loss Account
Units Rs. Units Rs.
To Process II A/c 200
200
10,050
10,050
By Cash
By Procit &
Loss A/c
200
200
600
9,450
10,050
Abnormal Gain A/c
Units Rs. Unites Rs.
To Normal Loss A/c
To Profit & Loss A/c
150
150
600
11,501
12,101
By Process III
A/c
150
150
12,101
12,101
13.6 OPERATING COSTING :
Operating costing is that form of costing which applies where
standardized services are provided either by an undertaking or by a
service cost centre within an undertaking. It is also known as service
costing. It is suitable for the business such as transport, electricity,
hospital, canteens and hotels, banking etc. Operating costing is designed
to determine the cost of services rendered by an organization. It is a form
of unit costing which is applied to costing of services.
Operating costs are period costs. Expenses accumulated for a
period are related to the quantum of services rendered during the period.
The method of collection and analysis of cost is similar to single cost
system. Direct materials and their costs are obtained from voucher or
material requisitions. Information about direct labour is collected from
wage records. Overhead costs are allocated on the basis of cost units.
The following cost units are generally applied in different service
organizations.
349
Nature of organization Cost Unit
Transport Per tonne or Per K.M
Electricity Per Kilowatt hour
Hospitals Per Patient, Per Bed
Hotels Per Room
Canteen Per Plate, Per Thali
Operating cost are generally collected under the following heads.
(i) Fixed or standing charges :- These charges are incurred
whether the organization is operating or not. For example,
Depreciation. Interest on capital, Insurance Premium. License
fees. Rent etc.
(ii) Semi fixed or Maintenenance Charges :- These expenses are
incurred on repairs and maintenance of equipments, vehicles, and
machines, in order to keep them in working condition. They are
semi-fixed or semi-variable nature. For example, Repairs and
maintenance, Garage Charges, Painting, Hire charges for vehicles
etc.
(iii) Variable or Running charges :- These expenses are incurred on
the actual running of equipments, machines or vehicles. They vary
from day to day. They are variable in nature. For example, Petrol,
Oil, Electricity and Power, Driver’s wages etc.
The computation of costs is recorded in a cost sheet or operating
cost statement. The various elements of costs are arranged in
such a way so as to calculate the operating cost per unit. The cost
per unit is based on average cost.
350
Illustration – 9 :
ABC Transport Company is running four buses between two towns
50 kms apart. Seating capacity of each bus is 40 Passengers. The
following particulars were obtained from the records of the company
Rupes
Wages of Drivers, Conductors & Cleaners 24,000
Salaries of office staff 10,000
Diesel Oil etc. 40,000
Repair & maintenance 8,000
Taxes, Insurance etc. 16,000
Depreciation 26,000
Inerest & other charges 20,000
Actual Passengers carried were 75 percent of the full capacity. All
the four buses run on all days of the month. Find out operating cost per
Passenger- KM.
Solution :
Operating cost Statement
Total Cost Cost Per
Passenger KM
Rs. Rs.
(a) Standing charges :-
Wages of Drivers, Conductors
& Cleaners 24,000 0.067
Salaries of Office Staff 10,000 0.027
Taxation & Insurance 16,000 0.045
Interest & other charges 20,000 0.055
351
----------- ----------
Total 70,000 0.194
(b) Running Charges :
Diesel, Oil etc 40,000 0.111
Reparis & maintenance 8000 0.023
Depreciation 26,000 0.072
------------ ------------
Total 74,000 0.206
------------- ------------
Grand Total 1,44,000 0.400
------------ ------------
Operating cost per Passenger KM = Rs. 0.40 or 40 paise.
75
(c) Passenger KMs = ----- (Buses x capacity x Distance x day x 2)
100
75
= ----- (4 x 40 x 50 x 2 x 30)
= 100
= 0.75 (480000)
= 3,60,000
Illustraction – 10 :
From the following information relating to a hotel, calculate room
rent to be charged to give a profit of 25% on cost excluding interest :-
- Salaries to staff Rs. 1,80,00 p.a.
352
- Wages of the room attendant Rs. 20 per day There is a room
attendant for each room and wages are paid only when the room Is
occupied.
- Lighting, Heating & Power-Normal Lighting expenses for a room. For
the whole month is Rs. 50/- when occupied.
Power is used only in winter and the charges are Rs. 20/- for a room,
when occupied.
- Repair to Building Rs. 40,000 p.a.
- Linen Rs. 6000 p.a.
- Sundries Rs. 16000 p.a.
- Interior decoration & Furnishing Rs. 20,000 p.a
- Depreciation @ 5% is to be Charged on buildings of Rs. 10,00,000
- Interest to be charged @ 15% on Investment of Rs. 15,00,000.
- There are 100 rooms in the hotel out of which 80% of the rooms are
generally occupied in summer and 30% in winter. The period of
summer and winter may be considered to be of 6 months in each
case. A month may be assumed of 30 days.
Solution
Operating cost statement
Rs.
( Per Annum )
(a) Standing charges
Staff Salaries 1,80,000
Repairs to Building 40,000
Linen 6,000
Sundries 16,000
Interior decoration etc. 20,000
Depreciation of Building 50,000
Interest on Investment 2,25,000
--------------
353
Total 5,37,000
(b) Running Charges
Room attendant’s wages : 288000
- summer (20 x 30 x 6 x 80) 108000
- winter (20 x 30 x 6 x 30) 36600
-------------
Lighting, Heating & Power 432600
-------------
Total Rent 969600
Profit @ 25% on cost excluding interest 186150
------------
Total Rent 1155750
------------
1155750
Room Rent per day = ---------------------------------- = Rs. 58.37
19800
Working :
(1) Calculation of room days =
- Summer 100 rooms x 6 months x 30 days x 80% = 14400
- winter 100 rooms x 6 months x 30 days x 30% = 5400
Total 19800
(2) Calculation of Lighting, Heating & Power =
354
Lighting
Summer = 50 x 6 x 100 x 80% = 24000
Winter – 50 x 6 x 100 x 30% = 9000
Power
Winter = Rs. 20 x 6 x 100 x 30% = 3600
-----------
TotaL 36600
-----------
13.7 BOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. Cost Accounting & Costing Methods – H. J. Wheldon
2. Cost Accounting – Jawaharlal.
13.8 EXERCISES
1. What is unit costing? What are its advantages?
2. What is job order costing? What is the nature of job costing?
3. What is contract costing? What are the principles to be followed in
respect of computing and taking credit of profits on incomplete
contracts?
4. What are the general features of process costing? What is the
difference between normal and abnormal loss?
5. Why operating costing used.
6. Lion Industries Ltd. undertakes to supply 1000 units of a component
pre month for January, February and March. Every month a batch
order is opened against which materials and labour cost are booked
at actual. Overheads are levied at a rate per labour hour. The selling
price is contracted at Rs. 15 per unit. From the following data,
present the profit per unit of each batch order and the overall position
of the order for 6000 units :
Month Batch output Material cost Labour cost
(Nos.) Rs. Rs.
355
January 2500 12,500 5,000
February 3,000 18,000 6,000
March 2,000 10,000 4,000
Labour is paid at the rate of Rs. 20 per hour. The other details are :-
Month Overheads Total labour Hours
Rs.
January 24000 8000
February 180000 9000
March 30000 10000
7. A work order for 5000 units of a commodity has to pass through four
different machines of which the machine hour rates are :-
No. 1 Rs. 12.50
No.2 Rs. 30.00
No.3 Rs.40.00
No.4 Rs. 25.00
The following expenses have been incurred on the work order
Materials Rs. 40,000 and Wages Rs. 15000 :-
Machine No. 1. worked for 200 hours
2. worked for 300 hours
3. worked for 240 hours
4. worked for 100 hours
After the work order had been executed, Materials worth Rs. 4,000 were
returned to stores. Office overheads are to be estimated @ 60% of the
356
works cost. 10% of the production is going to be discarded, being
unsatisfactory for which ½ the amount can be realized from sale in the
junk market. Find out the rate of Selling Price per unit if 20% Profit on
Selling Price is desired.
8. Job No. X-10 has incurred the following costs by ABC Co. Ltd.
Materials – 15 kg @ 2.5 per kg.
Wages – Dept A-18 Hours @ Rs. 4 per hour
B-32 Hours @ Rs. 3 per hour.
Budgeted overhead for the year, based on normal capacity, is as
follows :-
Variable overhead –
Dept A – Rs. 60000 for 9000 Direct labour hours
Dept B – Rs. 8000 for 10,000 Direct labour hours.
Fixed overheads –
Total budgeted direct labour hours – Rs. 22000
Total budgeted expenditure Rs. 16,500.
Your are required to calculate the cost of job No. X-10 and
estimate the percentage of profit obtained if the Price quoted to
the customer was Rs. 372.
9. The General Foundries undertakes to deliver 100 machines to be
manufactured out of mild steel at Rs. 7.50 per casting. The
expenses pertaining to the job are given below :-
357
Materials 150 kg mild steel @ Rs. 1.50 per kg.
- Mourning – 80 hours @ Rs. 1 per hour
- Coremaking – 40 hours @ Rs. 0.8 per hour
- Finishing – 50 hour @ Rs. 1.25 per hour
Overhead expenses –
- Moulding – 150 Percent of labour cost
- Core making – 200 per cent of labour cost
- Finishing – 100 percent at labour cost.
Casting cost come to Rs. 250 per operation and the input of mild
steel in this case was 1000 kgs. 30 kg. of the metal is tested out
and the value creditable is Rs.1 per kg. Also 2 kgs were lost in the
process of melting and moulding. Actually 105 castings are made
out of which 3 were defective and were rejected on inspection.
The excess casting in good condition were also delivered to the
customer at a concessional rate of Rs. 6 per casting. Prepare the
job – cost sheet suitably showing all the details.
10. ABC Contractor were engaged on one contract during the year
2009. The contract price was Rs. 2,00,000. The trial balance
extracted from the books on 31st December 2009 stood as
follows :
Rs. Rs.
Share Capital 50,000
Sundry Creditors 14,000
Buildings 27,000
Cash at Bank 5,000
Contract Account
358
Materials 37,000
Plant 20,000
Wages 50,000
Other Expenses 5,000
Cash received (80% of work certified) 80,000
----------- ---------------
1,44,000 1,44,000
------------- -------------
Of the plant and materials charged to the contract, plant costing
Rs.2,000 and materials costing Rs. 1,000 were destroyed by an
accident. On 31st December 2009 plant costing Rs. 2,000 was
returned to stores and materials at site was valued at Rs. 1,400,
cost of uncertified work was Rs. 2,000.
Charge 10% depreciation on plant. Prepare Contract Account for
the year, transferring two-third of profits on the basis of cash
received to the profit and loss account and show the relevant
items in the Balance Sheet as at 31st December 2009.
11. Farewell Limited commenced a contract on 1st January 2008. The
total contract was for Rs. 20,00,000. It was decided to estimate the
total profit and to take to the credit of profit
& loss account the estimated profit on the basis of cash received.
Actual expenditure for the year 2008 and 2009 was as follows :
Rs. Rs.
Materials 3,00,000 5,20,000
Labour paid 2,00,000 2,40,000
Labour accrued 20,000 -
Plant purchased 1,80,00 -
Expenses paid 80,000 1,42,000
359
Plant returned to store at the end of the year 20,000 50,000
Materials on site 20,000 -
Work certified 8,00,000 Full
Work uncertified 30,000 Nil
Cash received 6,00,000 Full
The Plant is subject to annual depreciation @ 20% on cost.
Prepare Contract account and Contractee account for both the
years.
12. XYZ Ltd. manufactures three grades of products. The following
details are available for a particular month .
Particulars Process I Process II Process III
Materials used (tonnes) 20,000 15,000 10,000
Cost per tonne (Rs.) 20 10 5
Wages (Rs.) 80,00 40,000 30,000
Manufacturing expenses (Rs.) 40,000 30,000 10,000
Sent to warehouse 20% 40% 100%
Transferred to next process 80% 60% -
Sale of scrap per tonne (Rs.) 10 12 15
In each process 5% of the total weight put in is lost and 4% is
scrapped.
Prepare Process Cost accounts.
13. A Chemical product passes through Processes A and B before
completion. In Process B, By – product is produced which after
further processing in Process C is sold at a profit of 20% of cost.
360
You are required to prepare the following :
(a) Process A, B and C Account
(b) Abnormal Loss Account
(c) Abnormal Gain Account
Particulars Process
A B C
Output in units 4,200 3,800 100
Normal loss in process 20 5 -
(% of input)
Scrap Value of any loss in
Process per unit Rs. 2 Rs. 5 -
Cost Rs. Rs. Rs.
Direct Materials introduced 30,000 - -
(5000 units )
Direct Materials added 10,000 3,100 100
Direct Wages paid 12,000 14,700 300
Direct Expenses 6,000 1,200 -
Production overhead for the month were Rs. 12,000. These
overheads are to be absorbed on the basis of Direct Labour.
14. A Transport company has been given a 40 k.m. long route to run a
bus. The bus costs Rs. 500,000 and has been insured @ 4 per cent
per annum. Annual taxes payable amount to Rs. 3000. Garage Rent
is Rs. 200 p.m. Annual Reparis will be Rs. 4000 and the bus will be
used for 5 years.
The drivers salary will be Rs. 300 p.m. and conductors salary will be
Rs. 2400 p.m. Cost of Printing tickets will be Rs. 1000 p.m,
Manager’s salary will be Rs. 4000 per month.
361
Fuel cost will be Rs. 60 per 100 k.m. The bus will make 3 round
trips carrying an average of 30 passengers on each trip. Assuming
25% profit on taking, calculate the bus fare to be charged from each
passenger. The bus runs on an average 25 days in a month.
15. The following cost data pertaining to the year 2009 has been
collected from the books of BEES Ltd. Prepare a cost sheet showing
the cost of generation of Power per unit of KWTS.
Total units generated 15,00,000 kwts.
Rs.
Operating labour 16,500
Plant supervision 5250
Lubricant & supplies 10,500
Repairs & Maintenance 21,000
Administration overheads 9000
Capital cost 1,50,000
Coal consumed per Kwts is 1.5 and cost of coal delivered to the power
station is Rs. 33.06 per metric tonne. Depreciation rate chargeable is 4%
p.a. and interest on capital is to be taken at 7%.
362
14
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES AND
TECHNIQUES OF MARGINAL AND
STANDARD COSTING
STRUCTURE :
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Marginal costing
14.3 Introduction to Standard costing
14.4 Standard costing
14.5 Establishing cost standards
14.6 Steps for introducing standard costing
14.7 Limitation of standard
14.8 Variance Analysis
14.9 Types of Variances
14.10 Labour Variances
14.11 Overhead Variance
14.12 Books Recommended
14.13 Exercise
14.0 OBJECTIVES :
This units covers two techniques viz : (1) Marginal Costing and (2)
Standard Costing
• Classify various costs into the three groups : Fixed, Variable and
Semi-Variable
• Divide the Semi-Variable costs into (a) Fixed Costs and (b)
Variable Costs.
363
• Ascertain the Break Even level of activity.
• Quantify the effect of pricing decisions on the Break Even Point
and Profitability.
• Identify standard cost of the cost elements.
• Compare standard costs with actual / budgeted costs.
• Analyze the reasons for the difference between the standard cost
and actual / budgeted costs.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Consider the cost break up of a product as under :
Cost per
Unit
Rs.
Cost for
1000 Units
Rs.
Material
Wages
Supervisor’s Salary
Rent
Other Administrative, Selling and Distribution expenses
Total
50
30
50000
30000
5000
3000
12000
100000
In the above chart you will notice that Material and Wages
increase or decrease directly in proportion to the level of production i.e. if
1500 units are manufactured raw material cost will be Rs. 50 x 1500 = Rs.
75000 and wages will be Rs. 30 x 1500 = Rs. 45000. However, the other
components of costviz Supervisors Salary, Rent and Expenses will
remain the same. Take, for instance, Rent-whether you manufacture 1
unit or 1500 units, in the same space taken on rent, the rental expenses
will not change. If the Rent is Rs. 5000 per month, even if you
manufacture only one unit of the product, the Landlord is not going to
reduce the rent. Marginal cost refers to the portion of cost of a product
which increases or decreases in proportion to the increase or decrease in
quantity produced. Marginal cost is also referred to as variable cost. In the
following sections we will see how to use this idea to analyze the cost of a
product and ascertain the profit at various level of production.
364
Introduction to Standard Costing
Assume that you are a manufacturer and you just receive a big
enquiry for 40000 meters of tape. You decide to submit your most
attractive quotation and started to work out the probable cost of 400000
meters of tape. You will base your calculation on what the cost ought to
be under given conditions of output, facilities and efficiency. The basis
used by you can be referred to as Standard costs.
In the ensuing sections you will learn to identify the standard cost
components, relate them to the matieral cost, labour cost or overheads as
the case may be, derive the standard total cost of the product and arrive
at the difference between standard cost and actual cost and also analyse
and quantify the costs contributing to the difference.
14.2 MARGINAL COSTING :
Marginal costing is a technique of costing in which only variable
manufacturing costs are considered and used while valuing inventories
and determining cost of goods sold. Only variable manufacturing costs
are considered as product costs including direct materials direct labour
and variable factory overheads. Fixed factory overheads are not
considered as product costs and are not used for determination of value
of inventories and cost of goods sold. Fixed costs are excluded from the
cost of the products. Fixed manufacturing costs are treated as period
costs. Fixed manufacturing overheads are written off to the Profit and
Loss account in the period they are incurred.
Marginal cost means variable production cost. These costs tend to
vary in direct proportion to the changes in the production level. Marginal
cost is the amount at any given volume of output by which aggregate
costs are changed if the volume of output is increased or decreased by
one unit. Thus, marginal cost is equal to prime cost plus variable
overheads. This technique of marginal costing differentiate between fixed
and variable costs for finding out the effect of changes in the volume of
365
output on profit. The usefulness of Marginal costing depends upon the
accuracy of differentiation between fixed and variable costs. Product cost
and Work in Progress are computed on the basis of variable cost only.
Fixed cost is charged during the same period out of Contribution which is
equal to Sales less variable Cost. Prices are fixed on the basis of variable
costs and profitability of the product is determined on the basis of
Contribution.
14.2.1 INCOME STATEMENT UNDER MARGINAL COSTING :
Under marginal costing, only variable costs of production are
subtracted from sales revenue to determine Contribution or margin of
profit. All fixed costs are deducted from Contribution in order to arrive at
net profit. Fixed Manufacturing costs are excluded from marginal cost,
hence inventories are valued at lower of cost or market price. The
specimen of income statement which is prepared under marginal costing
technique is given below :-
INCOME STATEMENT Amount (RS)
Sales …………………..
Less : Variable costs
Direct materials ……………..
Direct Labour ……………..
Variable Manufacturing overheads ……………..
__________ __________
COST OF GOODS MANUFACTURED
Add :- Opening stock of inventory __________
Less : Closing stock of inventory …………….
__________
Marginal Contribution
366
Less : a) Fixed manufacturing overheads ……………….
b) Variable Administrative & selling overheads ……………….
Net Profit __________
Illustration 1.
ABC Co. Ltd. has its plant capacity of 20000 units per month. The
variable cost per unit is as follows :-
Rs.
Direct Materials 3.00
Direct Labour 2.25
Variable factory overheads 0.75
Total 6.00
Fixed overheads are Rs. 25000 per month or Rs. 1.25 per unit at
normal capacity Fixed selling and distribution overheads are Rs. 5000 per
month. Actual Production, Sales and Inventory units were as follows :-
Opening stock of inventory
Uints Produced
Units sold
Closing Stock of inventory
Sales Price Per unit
Prepare income statement under marginal costing and determine
the Profit.
367
Solution
INCOME STATEMENT
Rs Rs.
Sales 210000
-----------
Less : Variable costs
Direct materials 57000
Direct Labour 42750
Variable Manufacturing overheads 14250
-----------
COST OF GOODS MANUFACTURED 114000
Add :- Opening stock of inventory 18000
132000
Less : Closing stock of inventory 6000
----------
(100*6)
Cost of Goods sold
Marginal Contribution 126000
Less : Fixed Expenses 84000
Factory 25000
Selling& Overheads Distribution 5000
30000
Net Profit 54000
Working The value of closing stock =
Cost of goods Manufactured 114000 Rs. 6 Per unit
No of units Produced 19000
368
Total Value 1000*6 = Rs 6000
14.2.2 Applications of Marginal costing Technique
Marginal costing has great potentialities for management in
different managerial task and decision making process. It assist
management in selection of product mix, capacity utilization, make or buy
decision, Classification of costs into fixed and variable enables fixation of
responsibility for cost because variable costs are controllable. It also helps
in evaluation of performance of different products or departments.
Marginal costing helps planning for making maximum profit by suggesting
suitable products mix. It also provides more useful information to
management for pricing the goods. Marginal costing also enables to meet
the situation most satisfactorily when business is slack or when the firm is
facing acute competition.
14.2.3 BREAK EVEN POINT
The break – even point can be defined as the point of sales levels
at which profits are Zero and there is no loss. In other words, Break –
Even Point is that point at which total costs are equal to total sales
revenue. At break even point profit being zero, contribution is equal to
fixed costs. If the actual volume of sales is higher than break even volume
there will be a profit. Beyond the break even point, all the marginal
contribution represents profit.
Break even point establishes the output level which evenly breaks
the costs and revenues.
The BEP is determined by using the following formula :-
Fixed Costs Or Fixed Costs
BEP = --------------------------------- ---------------------------------
369
Contribution Per unit Profit Volume Ratio
Contribution is equal to Sales less Variable costs or Fixed cost
plus Profit.
Contribution Per unit
Profit Volume Ratio = ---------------------------------------------
Sales Price Per unit
Fixed cost + Profit
OR = ---------------------------------------------
Sales
Sales – Variable cost
OR = ---------------------------------------------
Sales
Illustration 2
From the following particulars calculate break even point for a) unit
and b) Sales value.
Total Variables costs
Total fixed costs
Total Sales
Selling Price Per unit
Output
Variable cost Per unit
Solution :-
370
Fixed Costs
a) BEP (unit ) = --------------------------------------
Selling Price – Variable cost
2000 2000
= --------- = --------- = 2500 units
10-2 8
Fixed Cost
b) BEP (Sales ) = -------------------------------
P.V.Ratio
Sales – Variable cost 50000-10000
P V Ratio = --------------------------------- = ------------------ = 0.8
Sales 50000
20000 = Rs. 25000
BEP = 0.8
14.2.5 Limitations of Marginal Costing
The limitations of Marginal costing are given below :-
(a) The marginal costing method requires that all costs should be
divided into fixed and variable components. It is not easy to
divide all Semi-variable costs into fixed and variable costs.
(b) Marginal cost is not full cost. Hence, it cannot be used for
fixation of price in normal course of time. It is useful for shortterm management decisions only.
371
(c) Closing inventories are undervalued under marginal costing. It
does not contain the element of fixed costs.
(d) Fixed costs are increasing from time to time. Therefore, it is
not proper to ignore it while fixing the price of a product.
(e) Management has to consider many other factors before
deciding to expand the business or to drop a product on the
basis of marginal cost.
Illustration 3
The Golden Snow company manufactures and sells 10000 jars direct to
consumer under the brand name `Golden’ per month @ Rs. 12.50 Per
Jar. The company’s normal production capacity is 20000 Jars per month.
An analysis of cost for 10000 jars show the following :-
Direct materials Rs. 10000
Direct Labour Rs. 24750
Power Rs. 1400
Misc – Supplies Rs. 4300
Jars Rs. 6000
----------
46450
Fixed expenses (mfg.)
Selling 79550
---------
Total 126000
-----------
The Company has received an offer for the export under a different brand
name of 120000 jars of snow at 10000 jars per month at Rs. 7.50 per. jar
State whether the order should be accepted or not?
372
Solution :-
Cost Analysis for Current & Proposed Production
Current Position Proposed offer
Capacity
Sales (Units)
Selling Price (Rs.)
Sales value
Direct materials
Direct Labour
Power
Misc. – Supplies
Jars
Total
Contribution
Fixed Costs
50%
10000
12.50
125000
10000
24750
1400
4300
6000
46450
78550
79550
-1000
100%
20000
12.50*7.50
200000
20000
49500
2800
8600
12000
92900
107100
79550
27550
Marginal Cost
------------------- = 92900 = Rs. 4.645
20000
Thus, it would be clear from the above cost analysis that the
marginal cost per Jar is Rs. 4645 as against the export Price of Rs. 7.50.
There is a net loss of Rs. 1000 at 50% capacity. The export order would
bring additional contribution of Rs. 28550 which would result in net profit
of Rs. 27550. Hence, it is advisable to accept the export order.
Illustration 4
Bombay plastics make plastic buckets. An analysis of their
accounting reveals the following :
Variable cost per buckets Rs. 20
373
Fixed cost Rs. 50000 for the year
Capacity 2000 buckets per year
Selling price per bucket Rs.60
You are required to find out (a) Break even point (b) The number
of buckets to be sold to get a Profit of Rs. 14000 and (c) If the Company
can manufacture 600 buckets more per year with an additional fixed cost
of Rs. 2000, what should be the Selling Price to maintain the profit per
bucket as stated above?
Solution :
Fixed Cost 50000
(a) BEP --------------- = --------- = 1250 buckets
Contribution Per unit 40
Sales for desired profit
(b) ------------------------------ = Fixed cost + desired profit
Contribution Per unit
50000 + 14000 64000
= -------------------- = -------- = 1600 buckets
40 40
(c) Computation of new Selling Price =
14000
Profit Per bucket on of the sale of 1600 buckets= -------- Rs. 8.75
1600
374
Total Profit desired 2200*8.75 = Rs. 19250
Fixed Cost = 50000 + 2000 = Rs. 52000
Sales Value = Variable cost + fixed cost + Profit
= 2200*20 + 52000 + 19250
= 44000 + 52000 + 19250
= 115250
115250
Selling Price per Bucket = ---------- = Rs. 52.39
2200
Illustration 5 :-
X Ltd. has a production capacity of 200000 units per year. Normal
capacity utilization is reckoned as 90% and standard variable production
costs are Rs. 11 per unit. The fixed costs are Rs. 360000 per year.
Variable selling costs are Rs. 3 per unit and fixed selling costs are Rs.
270000 per year. The selling price per unit is Rs. 20. During the year
ended on 31st March 2009, the production was 160000 units and sales
were 150000 units, the closing inventory on 31-3-2009 was 20000 units.
The actual variable production costs for the year were Rs. 35000 higher
than the standard. Calculate the Profit for the year by using marginal
costing method.
Solution :
INCOME STATEMENT ( MARGINAL COSTING )
For the year ended 31-3-2009
Amount (Rs.)
Sales (150000 units (Rs. 20 each) 30,00,000
Variable Production costs 1760000
375
(160000*11)
Additional Variable Production Costs 35000
Add Cost of opening stock 1795000
(10000 unit @ Rs. 11 each) 110000
1905000
Less : Cost of Closing Stock 224118 1680882
---------- ------------
Marginal contribution 13919118
Less : Fixed costs :-
Factory 360000
Selling 270000
-----------
630000
Variable Cost selling 450000 1080000
------------
Net Profit 239118
20000*1905000
Working 1) Cost of closing stock = --------------------- = Rs. 224118
170000
14.3 STANDARD COST
Standard cost is a predetermined cost which is calculated from
management’s standards of efficient operation and the relevant
necessary expenditure. It is used as a basis for Price fixation as well as
for cost control through variance analysis. A standard may be a norm or a
measure of comparison in terms of specific items, such as kilograms of
materials, labour hours required, plant capacity etc. Standard costs are
pre-determined realistically and much more scientifically through the use
of time and motion studies, engineering estimates and specifications,
selected measures of plant capacity and cost behavior patterns. It
376
involves more sophistication, operation analysis and evaluation and
comprehensive review of internal and external factor which provide
reliable measure for product costing, pricing, planning, co-ordination and
controlling of costs. However, Standard costs are not estimated costs.
14.4 STANDARD COSTING
Standard costing is the process of preparation and use of standard
costs, their comparison with actual costs and the analysis of variances to
their causes and points incidence. It is in other words, setting of
predetermined cost estimates in order to provide a basis for comparison
with actual costs. In the standard costing, the emphasis is on standard
costs i.e. cost of materials, labour and overhead which are incurred if the
factory is operated as a highly efficient unit with Manager, Foreman,
Worker or a machine functioning as an efficient part of Production
Process. Standard costing is one of the most recent developed
refinement of cost accounting. It has been universally accepted as an
effective instrument for cost control in different industries. It serves as a
suitable yard stick to measure the efficiency of actual performances.
14.5 ESTABLISHING COST STANDARDS
Standards should be established for the purpose of cost control.
All factors should be considered for establishment of Standards.
Standards are established for a definite period of time. Standards are
developed for Materials, Labour and Overheads. The two standards
developed for Materials are Material quantity Standards and Material price
standards. The standard used for labour cost standard requires the
determination of standard capacity and standard overhead costs can be
computed using normal capacity. The normal or expected actual capacity
aims at a production level according to an existing set of conditions.
Standard costs require continuous review and revision. A Company
should establish a programme to raise standards whenever required so
that standards can be set at a currently attainable level.
377
14.6 STEPS FOR INTRODUCING STANDARD
COSTING
(a) Predetermination of technical details regarding materials,
labour operations, capacity utilization etc.
(b) Fixation of Standard costs in respect of Material, Labour and
Overhead
(c) Ascertaining the actual cost of Materials, Labour and
Overhead.
(d) Working out variations between the Standard and actual costs
and ascertaining reasons thereof.
(e) Presentation of suitable report to the appropriate level of
management for taking remedial measures, whenever
required.
14.7 LIMITATIONS OF STANDARD COSTING
(I) It is difficult to establish suitable standards
(II) If the standard set is very high the staff will not be able to
reach the target in spite of working hard.
(III) Standard Costing may not be suitable for small organizations.
Where conditions of production vary widely at short intervals,
variances will fluctuate considerably.
(IV) Where products are of non standard nature varying widely
from time to time, standard costing may not be useful.
14.8 VARIANCE ANALYSIS
Variance represents the difference between Actual cost and
Standard cost. The function of standards in cost accounting is to indicate
variances between standard costs which are allowed and actual costs
which have been recorded. Variance analysis can be defined as the
process of computing the amount of and isolating the cause of variance
between actual cotss and standard costs. Variance analysis involves two
steps :-
(a) Computation of Individual Variances.
(b) Determination of the causes of each variance.
Variances may be Favorable or Unfavorable.
378
If the actual cost is less than standard cost. It is a sign of efficiency
and the difference is termed as Favorable or positive variance. On the
other hand, Actual Cost is more than the standard cost it is a sign of
inefficiency and the difference is termed Unfavorable or negative
Variance. The words favorable or unfavorable are indicative of the
direction of variance from the standard costs. They need not in essance
be good or bad from the point of view of the firm, such a quantitative
indication can be made only after the underlying cause of the variance
has been determined. If the standards are properly set, variances would
serve as useful tool in the implementation of the concept of management
by exception in that variance keep the management informed about the
erratic and out of line behavior of the business.
14.9 TYPE OF VARIANCES
Variances relate to costs of manufacturing. The three elements of
costs of manufacturing are Materials. Labour and Overheads. Thus the
three important variances are Material variances. Labour variances and
Overhead Variances.
14.9.1 MATERIAL VARIANCES :-
The following variances constitute Material variances :-
a) Material cost variance
b) Mateiral price variance
c) Material usage variance
14.9.2 a) Material cost Variance
Material Cost Variance is the difference between the actual cost of
direct materials used and standard cost of direct materials specified for
the output achieved. This can be computed as follows -
Material cost variance (Actual Quantity Actual Price)
379
( Standard Quantity * Standard Price)
It is favorable when actual cost is less than standard cost
14.9.3 b) Material Price Variance
Material Price Variance occurs when raw materials are purchased
at a Price different from Standard Price.
Material Price Variance = (Actual Price – Standerd Price) * Actual
Quantity
It is favorable when Actual Price paid is less than the Standard
Price.
14.9.4 c) Material usage variance
Material Usage Variance results when actual quantities of raw
materials used in production differ from standard quantities that should
have been used to Produce the output achieved Material Usage Variance
= (Actual Qty – td Qty) Standard Price
It is favorable when total actual quantity of materials used is less
then the total standard quantity.
Illustration 6 :
From the following particulars compute a) Material cost variance b)
Material Price variance and c) Material usage variance.
380
Quantity of Materials purchased - 3000 units
Value of Materials purchased - 8250
Standard Quantity of Materials
Required per tone of output - 30 units
Standard rate of Materials - Rs. 2.50 per unit
Opening stock of Materials. - Nil
Closing stock of Materials - 500 units
Output during the Period – 80 Tonnes
Solution :-
Materials consumed = 3000 – 500 = 2500 units
8250
Actual rate of Materials purchased = --------
2.75
= 300
Standard Quantity of actual output = 30*80 = 2400 units.
a) Material Cost Variance = Actual Cost – Standard Cost
= (AP*AQ) – (SP*SQ)
= (2.75*2500)-(2.50*2400)
= Rs. 6875 – 6000
= Rs. 875 (adverse)
b) Material Price variance = Actual Qty (AP-SP)
= 2500 (2.75 – 2.50)
381
= Rs. 625 (adverse)
c) Mateiral Usage Variance = Std. Price (AQ – SQ)
= Rs. 2.50 (2500 – 2400)
= Rs. 2.50 * 100
= Rs. 250 (Adverse)
14.11 LABOUR VARIANCE
The following variances constitute labour variances
(a) Labour Cost variance
(b) Labour Rate variance
(c) Labour Efficiency variance
14.10.1 (a) Labour Cost Variance :-
Labour cost variance is the difference between the actual direct
labour cost and the standard direct labour cost specified for the output
achieved. It is calculated as follows :
Labour cost variance = (Actual Hours * Actual Rate) – (Standard
Hours > Standard Rate)
= (AH* AR – SH * SR)
It is favorable when actual is less than standard labour cost.
14.10.2 (b) Labour Rate Variance :-
Labour rate variance is the difference between the wages at actual
rate and wages at Standard Rate for actual labour hours worked, It
ignores the question whether the actual labour hours worked during the
382
period were more or less than the standard labour hour required to
complete the work. It is calculated as follows.
Labour Rate Variance = (Actual Rate – Standard Rate) * Actual
Hours
= (AR – SR) * AH
It is favorable when actual wage rates are fllower than the
standard wage rates.
14.10.3 (c) Labour Efficiency Variance :-
Labour efficiency variance is the difference between the wages at
standard hours the worker should have consumed in actual production
and the wages for actual hours worked. The time required for labour work
is an index of its efficiency. Thus, this variance seeks to isolate the impact
of working greater or lesser number of hours than the standard hours in
production. The labour efficiency variance is calculated as follows :-
Labour Efficiency Variance = (Actual Hours – Standard hours for
actual output)* SR
Illustration 7 :
The standard time rate for unit component “X” are given below :-
Standard hours per unit 15
Standard Rate Rs. 4 per hour
The Actual data and related infoformation are as follows :-
Actual Production 1000 units
Actual hours 15500 hours
Actual Rate Rs. 3.80 per hour.
383
Calculate :- (a) Labour Cost variance
(b) Labour Rate Variance and
(c) Labour Efficiency variance.
Solution :-
(AH * AR – SH * SR)
(a) Labour cost Variance = ----------------------------
-1100
= Rs. 58,900-60,000
= Rs. 1100 (F)
(AR – SR) * AH
(b) Labour Rate Variance = -----------------------
-3100
= Rs. 3100 (F)
(c) Labour Efficiency Variance = (AH – SH)*SR
= Rs. (15500-15000)*4
= Rs. 2000 (A)
14.11 OVERHEAD VARIANCES
Overhead variance is the difference between the actual overhead
cost incurred and standard overhead cost charged to production. The
manufacturing overhead is not entirely variable with level of Production.
Therefore, Standard Costs for factory overheads are based upon budgets
and not on standards. There should be a distinction between variable and
fixed manufacturing overhead cost. The following are the overhead
variances :-
384
(a) Overhead Cost Variance
(b) Overhead Expenditure Variance
(c) Overhead Volume Variance.
14.11.1 (a) Overhead Cost Variance
This overall overhead variance is the difference between the
actual overhead cost incurred and the standard difference between the
actual overhead cost incurred and the standard cost of overhead for the
output achieved. It can be computed as follows :-
Overhead Cost Variance = Actual Overhead incurred – Standard hours
for actual output *
Standard overhead Rate or Actual OH-Actual output *Standard Rate
It is favorable when actual overhead is less than – the Standard
Overhead.
14.11.2 (b) Overhead Expenditure Variance :-
Overhead Expenditure variance is the difference between actual
overhead and budgeted overhead based on actual hours worked. Actual
overhead costs may not be same as budgeted overhead costs due to
changes in tax rates, insurance premiums, depreciation etc. The
expenditure variance provides management with information, which helps
in controlling costs. It is determined as follows :-
Overhead Expenditure Variance = Actual Overhead – Budgeted
Overhead Cost.
It is favorable when actual overhead cost is less than the standard
overhead cost.
385
14.11.3 (c) Overhead Volume Variance :-
Volume Variance is applicable for fixed overheads. It is the
difference between the standard fixed overhead cost allowed for the
actual output and the budgeted fixed overhead based on standard hours
allowed for actual output achieved during the period. It is calculated. As
follows :-
Fixed Overhead Volume
Variance :- (Budgeted overhead applied to actual output –
Budgeted fixed overhead based of standard hour allowed for actual
output ) OR
(Actual Production – Budgeted Production )* Std. – fixed overhead
rate Per unit.
Illustration : 8
From the following information calculate
Overhead Variances Budgeted Actual
Output 15000 units 16000 units No. of Working Days 2527
Fixed Overheads Rs. 30,000 Rs. 30,500
Variable overheads Rs. 45,000 Rs. 47,000
386
Solution :
(a) Overhead cost Variance = (Actual OH – Actual units * Std. Rate)
Std. Rate Std. OH
------------- = ----------- = 75000 = Rs.5 per unit
Std. Output 15000
OH Cost Variance = (30,500 + 47000 – 16000 *)
= Rs. 77,500 – 80,000
= Rs. 2500 (F)
(b) Overhead volume Variance =Actul units * SR-Budgeted OH
=Rs. 16000*2-30000
=Rs. 32000-30000
=Rs. 2000 (F)
(c) Overhead Expenditure Variance =
(i) Variabe OH Expenditure Variance = (AOH-AO*Sr)
= 47000 – 16000*3
= 47000-4800
= Rs. 1000 (F)
(ii) Fixed OH Expenditure Variance = 30500-30000
= Rs. 500(A)
387
Illustration 9
CSV Ltd. Has furnished you with the following data :-
No. of working days
Production units
Fixed overheads
Budgeted fixed overhead rate is Re. 1 per hour. In June 2002,the
actual hours worked were 31500.
Calculate the following variances :-
(a) Overhead Cost Variance
(b) Overhead Expenditure Variance
(c) Overhead Volume Variance
Solution
Workings
Budgeted Overhead 3000 Actual Overhead Rs.31000
Budgeted Output (units) 20000 Actual Output (units) 22000
Budgeted Days 25 Actual Days 27
Budgeted hours 30000 Actual hours 31500
Budgeted OH Rate per hour Re. 1
Std. Time per unit of output 1.5 hrs.
Std. Rate per unit Rs. 1.50
Budgeted hours worked per day 1200 hours
Standard hours for actual output = 22000*1.5 = 33000
(a) Overhead Cost Variance = Actual OH cost – (SH*Sr)
= 31000 – (33000*1)
388
= 31000 – 30000
= Rs. 2000 (F)
(b) Overhead Expenditure Variance
= Actual overheads – Budgeted of redheads
= 31000-3000
= 1000 (A)
(c) Overhead Volume Variance
= Std. Rate Per Unit (Actual output-Budgeted output)
= Rs.1.50 (22000-20000)
= Rs. 1.50*2000
= Rs. 3000 (F)
Illustration 10
A manufacturing Company, which has adopted standard costing,
furnishes you the following data :-
Standards :-
Materials for 70 g Finished Products 100 Kg
Price of Materials Rs.1 per kg.
Actuals :-
Output 210000
Materials used 280000
Cost of materials Rs. 252000
Calculate :-
389
(a) Materials Cost Variance
(b) Materials Price Variance
(c) Materials Usage Variance
Solution :-
(a) Mateirals Cost Variance = (AQ*AP-SQ*SP)
= (280000*0.9-300000*1)
= Rs. 252000-300000
= Rs.48000 (F)
(b) Material Price Variance = AQ(AP-SP)
= 280000(0.9-1.00)
= 280000*0.10
= Rs. 28000 F)
(c) Material usage Variance = SP(AQ-SQ)
= 1(280000-300000
= Rs. 20000 (F)
Working
252000
1. Actual Price of Materials = ---------- = Rs. 0.90.
280000
Illustration 11.
The standard cost card for a product is given below :-
Materials = 2 kg @ Rs. 2.50 each = Rs. 5 per unit
390
Wages = 2 hours @ 50 paise each = Rs. 1 per unit
The actual which were emerged from business operations were as
follows.
Production 5000 units
Materials consumed 16500 Kgs. @ 2.40 each Rs. 39600.
Wages paid for 18000 hours @ Rs. 0.40 each = Rs. 7200
Calculate
(a) Material cot Variance
(b) Labour Variances
(a) Material cost Variance = Actual Cost – Standard cost
= Rs. (16500*2.40-16000*2.500)
= Rs.39600-4000
= Rs.400 (F)
(b) Material Price Variance = AQ (AP – SP)
= 16500 (2.40-2.50)
= Rs. 1650 (F)
(c) Material Wage Variance = SP (AQ-SQ)
= 2.50 (16500-16000)
= Rs.2.50*500
= Rs.1250 (A)
(d) Labour cost Variance = Actual Labour cost-Std. Labour
391
cost
= Rs. 7200-8000
= Rs. 800 (F)
(e) Labour Rate Variance = Actual Hour (AR-SR)
= 18000 (0.40-0.50)
= Rs,1800 (F)
(f) Labour efficiency variance = (Actual Hour-Std. Hours for Actual
Production)
* SR
= (18000-16000)*0.50
= 2000*0.50
= Rs. 1000 (A)
Illustration 12.
The direct labour strength of a section of Vijay Engineering Co. is
100 workers all paid at the rate of Rs. 600 per day of 8 hours each. The
normal production is 1000 pieces for a week of 48 hours. During a week
in September 2009. an order for 1500 pieces was completed spending
7650 hours made up 6300 hours at normal wages and 1350 hours at
overtime wages at double the rate. The total wages come to Rs. 6300.
Calculate the labour cost variances for the week.
Solution :
Working
(a) Standard Labour cost per piece :-
- weekly normal time 100*48 = 4800 hours
- weekly normal wages = 600*6=Rs. 3600
392
3600
- Normal wage rate per hour = ------ = Rs.0.75 per hour
4800
4800
- Normal time per piece = ------- = 4.8 hours
1000
3600
- Normal Labour Cost (STd.) = ------- = Rs. 3.60 per Piece
1000
(b) Actual Labour cost per piece :-
- actual hours worked in the week = 7650 hours
- pieces completed = 1500
- 7650
- Actual time taken Per Piece = ------- = 5.1 hrs.
1500
- Normal actual hours taken = 6300 hours
- Overtime worked = 135 horus
- Total Hours of normal wages = 6300+(2*1350)=9000
- Actual Wages Paid = Rs.6300
- 6300
- Average normal wage rate = ------- Rs. 0.70 per hour
9000
6300
- Actual Labour cost Per piece = ------- Rs. 4.20
1500
393
(c) Labour cost variance = Actual cost – Std. Cost
= Rs.6300-1500*3.6
= 6300-5400
= Rs. 900 (A)
(d) Labour Rate Variance = Actual Time *(AR-SR)
= 7650(0.70-0.75)
= 7650*0.05
= Rs. 382.50 (F)
(e) Labour Efficiency Variance = Std. Rate (Actual time – Standard
time for actual Production)
= 0.75 (7650-4.8*1500)
= 0.75(7650-7200)
= Rs. 0.75(450)
= Rs. 337.50 (A)
14.12 BOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. Cost Accounting : Jawahar Lal
2. Principles & Practice of Cost Accounting : N.K.Prasad
14.13 EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by Marginal costing? What are its advantages
and limitation?
2. What is Break-even Point? What is its usefulness?
3. What are the most important areas of management decisions opened
up by the application of marginal costing?
4. What is Standard Costing? What are its uses?
5. What is the difference between Standard cost and Estimated cost?
394
6. “Variance analysis is an integral part of Standard Costing” Explain
this statement.
7. The following information has been taken from the records of ABC
Co. Ltd. You are required to find out net profits using the technique of
Marginal Costing:
Sales Rs. 75000
Variable Cost :
Direct Materials 22500
Direct Wages 12500
Factory Overheads 5250
Adm. Selling & Distribution overheads 8000 48250
----------
Fixed Costs
Factory Overhead 2000
Admin. & Other OH 3350 5350
----------
Total Cost 53600
---------
Profit 21400
Q.8 The following data are obtained form the records of a Factory
Sales – 4000 units @ of Rs. 25 each Rs. 1,00,000
Materials consumed 40000
Variable overheads 10000
Direct labour 20000
Fixed overheads 18000 88000
-------- ---------
Net Profit 12000
----------
395
Calculate :
(a) Break – Even point
(b) Sales needed to earn a profit of 20% on sales.
(c) Extra units which should be produced to obtain the present
profit if it is proposed to reduce the selling price by 20%.
(d) Selling Price to be fixed to bring down its B.E.P. to 500 units
under present conditions.
Q.9 The Standard quantity and Standard price of raw material required
for one unit of Product A are given below :-
Material Quantity Selling Price
X 2 Kg. 3 per Kg.
Y 4 Kg. 2 per kg.
The actual production and relevant data are given below.
Output 500 unit.
Material Quantity Selling Price
(For 500 units)
X 1100 kg. 3 per kg.
Y 1800 kg. 2 per kg.
You are required to calculate
(a) Mateiral Cost Variance
(b) Material Price Variance
(c) Material Usage Variance
9. From the following data calculate
(a) Labour Cost
(b) Labour Rate and
(c) Labour Efficiency Variances for the two department.
396
Dept. A Dept. B
Actual Rs. 2000 Rs. 1800
Standard hours produced Rs. 8000 Rs. 6000
Standard rate per hour Rs. 0.30 Rs. 0.35
Actual hours worked 8200 5800
My name is James Kanuth , I'm TANZANIAN This site is all about update, news and studies Gets updates of new movies and music also booking for photography gets notes etc contact jkanuth20@gmail.com for more information and services. Thanks for visiting my blog ��
Subscribe to:
Post Comments (Atom)
jkanuth20@gmail.com
Never Give In
Swipe upwards👆 to read swipe down to see!!!! Today's youth need immediate success and progress instead of thinking and finding sources ...
-
In this post, we are discussing about the difference between GPT and MBR in this post. And also helping you choose the right one for your ...
-
Swipe upwards👆 to read swipe down to see!!!! Today's youth need immediate success and progress instead of thinking and finding sources ...
-
Win and success comes when someone struggle and fight for something, doesn't matter how many times but keep and try there is a time a...
No comments:
Post a Comment
jkanuth20@gmail.com